Profile of an Adolescent Bully Essay

From 2000 to the present time, there have been well over 600 peer-reviewed articles published on bullying. When compared to the less than 190 articles that were published from 1980 to 2009, one has to acknowledge that this area of research has exploded. Research indicates that between 10% and 30% of children and youth are involved in bullying and that bullying also increases during the middle school period as children enter adolescence (Cook, Williams, Guerra, Kim & Sadek, 2010, p. 65). Talk to any adolescent in school today and they will have their own story about their experience with bullying and there is a consistent agreement that it is becoming more complex to address. This essay is intended to inform the audience of some of the different behaviors and characteristics of bullies, the different methods of bullying, and to explore the possible reasons for origination in order to assist in future prevention and intervention efforts. Where is the Research? While performing research for this paper it became quickly noticeable that studies profiling a bully’s traits are scarcely performed. The focus of most research is in areas such as the methods of harassment used by bullies (i. e. cyber bullying), or the ramifications towards society caused by being bullied [i. e. school shootings (Barnett, Miller-Perrin, Perrin, 2011, p. 280). ] There is little research focused solely on profiling the bully him/herself. If society is going to make a longstanding change and truly break the cycle of harassment between adolescents than the background of the bully should be explored and assessed. While a profile of a potential victim is offered, it is used to better complete an accurate understanding of the adolescent bully. Definition of a Bully Bullying is commonly defined as a specific type of aggressive behavior intended to distress a vulnerable person and includes intent to cause harm, occurs repeatedly and involves a power imbalance (Barnett et al. , 2011, p. 160). During childhood, bullies are rejected, isolated, and disliked by their peers. Social acceptance for the bully changes during adolescence to being well accepted and liked by their peers. This could be due to the children’s gradual transition into adolescence resulting in an increased knowledge in social problem solving, or gaining an ability to negotiate a confrontation with others thereby diffusing volatile situations (Cook et al. , 2010, p. 71). Two Types of Bully’s Currently, there are two types of bully’s that are invading American grade schools, the typical bully and the bully victim. The typical bully.  An adolescent described as being loud, assertive, somewhat socially and academically challenged, hostile, possesses negative attitudes and beliefs about others, minimal problem-solving skills, and comes from a family environment typically characterized by conflict and poor parental monitoring (Cook et al. , 2010, pp. 75-76, Batsche & Knoff, 1994, p. 166). The bully victim. An adolescent holding negative attitudes and beliefs about him/herself and others, has minimal social competence, does not have adequate social problem-solving skills, has poor academic performance, and s not only rejected and isolated by peers but also negatively influenced by the peers with whom he or she interacts with (Cook et al. , 2010, p. 76). A possible motive for a bully victim to become aggressive at school is that they may be experiencing their own victimization due to the emotional and psychological effects of being a victim at home (Rivers, Poteat, Noret, Ashurst, 2009, p. 212), and are exposed to family models of aggression resulting in violence contributing to violence (Barnett et al. , 2011). Beyond Primary Roles There has been a significant change as to how bullying behavior is understood. With the expansion past primary roles such as bully and victim, Rivers et al. have defined secondary roles that can categorize all participants of a victimization scenario. The assistant bully plays an active but secondary role to the bully. The reinforcer is considered to be a pupil that joins in laughing at the victim or encouraged the bully. Outsiders are aware that the bullying is taking place but will actively remove themselves from the situation. Lastly, the defender is seen as one that directly intervenes or displays help-seeking behavior when involved in bullying situation, and is most times a female (2009, p. 12). Motives The motives of bullies range from satisfying the need for power or to be affiliated with another person or group that is powerful, to a partial or total inability to manage anger. Dependent on their environment at home, they may exert themselves to attain a sense of control in their lives. On closer observation, bullies often demonstrate problems with impulsivity, a need to dominate others, and show little sympathy or empathy for their victims. Some bullies even admit that they â€Å"like† being a bully and may have a slightly justified outlook on their social role. Parents of Bullies Research has shown that parents of bullies prefer authoritarian parenting styles, will sometimes reject their child or show hostility, may show inconsistent parenting while supervising at a minimum, and have poor problem-solving skills (Batsche & Knoff, 1994, p. 166). The parents of adolescent bullies have failed to model positive conflict resolution or how to satisfy their need for attention, therefore the bully will continue with harassing others because it has proven to be an effective strategy (Cook et al. , 2010). The bully may also be witnessing interparental violence at home (Barnett et al. , 2011, 161). Rivers et al. have shown that children who witness violence at home regularly are more likely to require counseling to overcome the emotional and relationship difficulties they experience (2009). Not addressing negative behavior patterns may result in the behaviors continuing into adulthood, resulting in bullying others at their workplace, and increasing their likeliness of being convicted of a criminal offense during adulthood than their noninvolved peers. They are also at a higher risk for experiencing psychiatric problems, difficulties in romantic relationships and substance abuse problems (Cook et al. 2010, p. 79). Leaving this issue unaddressed also allows for the bully to possibly simulate the same environment that was conducive to their becoming a bully while raising their offspring therefore possibly making bullying intergenerational. Different Modes of Bullying Once seen as mostly physical in nature, bullying has now transformed into a ten-headed monster that spans from physical/direct bullying to various forms of indirect bullying such as turning friends against their peers, threats, and teasing. Bullying has also been made more complex and autonomous with the introduction and ease of accessibility to technology. Now bullies use tools such as text, e-mails, websites and chat rooms to torment their victims (Barnett et al. , 2011, p. 279). Measures of bullying. These measures need to encompass the three broad domains of behaviors that constitute bullying: direct physical bullying, direct verbal bullying, and indirect bullying in which the person or group of persons doing the bullying is not necessarily identified (Carbone-Lopez, Esbensen & Brick, 2010, p. 334). Most common types of bullying are verbal, then physical, then threats. Boys have always gravitated more towards physical bullying while girls tend to verbally bully their victims (Barnett et al. , 2011, p. 280). One of the reasons suggested was that girl verbal skills develop earlier than boys and until recently, it was seen as socially unacceptable and unladylike to physically bully (Strohmeier, Wagner, Spiel & von Eye, 2010, p. 187). The general concept of bullying entails a distinct type of aggression characterized by a repeated and systematic abuse of power. There are many acets to bullying that include but are not limited to physical aggression, verbal aggression (e. g. name calling and threats), relational aggression (e. g. , social isolation and rumor spreading), and cyber-aggression (e. g. , text messaging and e-mailing hurtful messages or images), a new venue for inflicting harm in an increasingly electronic youth culture (Strohmeier et al. , 2010, p. 187 ). The technology boom of today has brought new ways of communicating with each other. E-mail, instant messaging, Facebook, Myspace and texting are some of the new facets of communication. Gone are the days of writing letters or simply giving someone a phone call; people find personal confrontation easier to avoid and use these technologies to hide behind instead. The art of conversation is quickly giving way to this type of messaging and avoidance. Today’s society finds it much easier to verbally attack someone behind a phone or computer than to do it face-to-face. Victims Characteristics. Victims are characterized as submissive and non-assertive (Barnett et al. , 2011, p. 161). More often being smaller than the bully; the victim may be more sensitive, unhappy, cautious, quiet, and/or withdrawn (Cook et al. 2010, p. 65). Because the victim allows for the bullying to continue, one can only assume that they have passive or submissive characteristics. They may also be insecure and will not normally assert themselves. When attacked they withdraw and cry and since they are vulnerable, they will not retaliate. There is also an alternative type of victim termed the â€Å"provocative victim. † These victims are overactive, may have irritating behaviors, and are anxious along with showing aggressive traits (Green, Felix, Sharkey, Furlong & Kras, 2012, p. 1). These types of victims could possibly be a bully victim in the making. Age range. Victims are normally the same age and in the same class as the bully (Rivers et al. , 2009, p. 212). Therefore the bully will spend enough time with the victim to know them well. The bully does not have as much opportunity to victimize younger students since the chance to be around them lessens as they progress through school. The number of older pupils with opportunity to bully at decreased risk to selves decreases as the bully ages. Gender specifics. When explored, the reasons for bullying another peer differ by gender. A study done by Beaty & Alexeyev states that boy bullies pick on others because they â€Å"do not fit in,† are physically weak, or due to the clothes they wore (2008, p. 2). Victims also include those that are special needs, deviate from the norm, or differ in sexual orientation or race (Barnett, 2011, p. 161). Girls also primarily bully others because they â€Å"do not fit in,† but differ greatly when choosing who to pick on according to cognitive abilities. While boys have a tendency to victimize other pupils with special needs, girls chose to victimize what would be considered as â€Å"overachievers† (Rivers et al. 2009, p. 213). Conclusion Now knowing all of this information, how can it be put to use when addressing bullies in their earliest stages? Schools can use this profile of a bully as a window into what makes them become the people they are. Teachers will be able to identify a bully and address background situations such as family structure to offer counseling to the bully and their family. They could also assist victims within the school in learning social skills to deter bullies from picking on them as well.

Goodyear Case study Essay

The tire industry is divided into two end-use markets, the original equipment tire market and the replacement tire market. Original equipment tires are sold by tire manufacturers directly to automobile and truck manufacturers. Goodyear is the second largest tire producer worldwide. It operates 44 tire product plants in 28 countries and 7 rubber plantations. Goodyear has the broadest line of tire products of any tire manufacturer. It is one of the best known and recognized brand names in the world. Goodyear is also one of the leading national advertisers in the U.S. Goodyear is the market leader for original equipment tires at 38%. Replacement passenger car tires account for 75% of annual sales for Goodyear. They are the market share leader in the U.S. replacement tire market. Passenger car tires account for 15%, light truck tires for 11% and highway truck tires for 23%. Goodyear brand tires have the broadest retail coverage with almost 8,000 â€Å"retail points of sale† or 20% of all US replacement tire locations. Nearly 2 million which accounts for 5% of replacement tires are being replaced annually at 850 Sears Auto Centers. Discount, multi-brand independent dealer’s market share rose from 7% to 15% between 1982 and 1992. Market share for replacement tires captured by retailers not serviced by Goodyear has grown from 17% to 35% (1982-1992). Goodyear’s market share declined 3.2%, or 4.9 million units between 1987 and 1991. Goodyear stores reported a 1% decline in replacement tire market share to 9%. 2.0CASE PROBLEM The Sears proposal raised several strategic considerations for Goodyear. First, as a matter of distribution policy, Goodyear has not sold the Goodyear tire brand through a mass merchandiser since the 1920s, when it sold tires through Sears. Decision to sell Goodyear brand passenger car tires again through Sears would represent a significant change in distribution policy and could create conflict between its franchised  dealers. Second, if the Sears proposal was accepted, several product policy questions loomed. Specifically should the arrangement with Sears include (1) only the Goodyear Eagle Brand or (2) all of its Goodyear brands? Sears would provide a great opportunity for Goodyear for several different reasons. Sears is a large National Retailer with 850 Auto Centers with potential sales on 2 million replacement tire sales annually. It gives Goodyear the opportunity to stop the bleeding of market share 3.2% loss over last 4 years. They could take advantage of Sears sponsored pr omotions for those consumers that have become more prices sensitive and less brand loyal. They can also position themselves as the premium national brand at Sears. 3.0GOODYEAR TIRE AND RUBBER COMPANY Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, headquartered in Akron, Ohio, was founded in 1898 by Frank and Charles Seiberling. The company began as a supplier of bicycle and carriage tires, but soon targeted the fledgling automotive industry. The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company, incorporated on August 29, 1898, is a manufacturer of tires. The Company, together with subsidiaries and joint ventures, develops, manufactures, markets and distributes tires for a range of applications. The Company also manufactures and markets rubber-related chemicals for various applications. The Company is an operator of commercial truck service and tire retreading centers. The Company operates approximately 1,300 tire and auto service center outlets where it offered its products for retail sale and provided automotive repair and other services. The Company manufactures its products in 52 manufacturing facilities in 22 countries, including the United States. It operates through four operating segments representing i ts regional tire businesses: North American Tire; Europe, Middle East and Africa Tire (EMEA); Latin American Tire, and Asia Pacific Tire 4.0SEARS, ROEBUCK & COMPANY Sears, Roebuck & Company, commonly referred to as Sears, is an American multinational department store chain headquartered in Hoffman Estates, Illinois, in Greater Chicago. The company was founded by Richard Warren Sears and Alvah Curtis Roebuck in 1886, as the R.W. Sears Watch Company in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Julius Rosenwald took control in 1895 and expanded its sales and profits greatly. In 1925, it began opening local department stores. The business peaked in the 1950s and 1960s, and then began a long, slow contraction. In 2005, it was bought out by Kmart, which renamed itself Sears Holdings. In 1973, it opened a new headquarters in the Sears Tower, a 108-story, 1,451-foot (442 m) skyscraper that was the tallest building in the world until 1998. Until October 1989, Sears was America’s largest retailer, when it was surpassed by Walmart in domestic revenue. Target, Best Buy, and Home Depot have also surpassed Sears since. As of 2012, it is the fourth-largest U.S. department store company by retail sales and is the 12th-largest retailer in the United States, leading its competitor Macy’s in 2013 in terms of revenue. 5.0INDUSTRY BACKGROUND World tire production in 1991 was approximately 850 million tires. North American production accounted for 29%, Asian production was 28%, and Western European production accounted for 23%. The tire industry is divided into two, broad segments: original equipment (OE) tires and replacement tires. The OE segment accounts for 20-25 percent of tires sold annually and these unit sales are trending downward. The replacement tire segment accounts for 70-75 percent of tires sold each year and this unit sales trend is â€Å"flat†. Passenger car tires account for 75 percent of annual sales and the remaining 25% go to commercial and miscellaneous usage. Although 10 tire manufacturers account for 75 percent of worldwide production, only three firms account for 60 percent of all tire sales sold. These three firms are Michelin, Goodyear, and Bridgestone. These firms compete in both the OE and replacement tire segments. Although Goodyear is second to Michelin in worldwide production, it is the U.S. market leader in both the OE and replacement segments. Even though the OE segment is smaller, it is viewed as strategically important by tire manufacturers because prominence in the OE segment provides volume related scale economics in the production of tires and it is believed that car owners satisfied with their OE tires on new vehicles will buy the same brand when they replace their worn tires. It should be noted though that passenger replacement tire buyers are becoming more price sensitive and less likely to simply replace their branded OE tire with the same brand of replacement tire if they are significantly more expensive. Demand in this market is directly related to the average mileage driven per vehicle, therefore, the longer a tire’s tread life the less they need to be replaced. Competition in this industry is intense in both the passenger OE and replacement tire segments. Competition in the OE segment revolves around the major vehicle manufacturers and supplying some or all of their tire needs for the new model year cars and trucks. Competition in the replacement tire segment occurs across the marketing mix. Major tire manufacturers compete on the basis of product variety and innovation, â€Å"retail points of sale,† price and promotion Goodyear is the second largest tire manufacturer in the world, behind Michelin which manufacturers and markets the Michelin and Uniroyal/Goodrich brands. The Goodyear brand is the single largest brand, in terms of sales to the OE tire segment. Its share of this segment is 38 percent. It is noteworthy; however, that Michelin with its Michelin and Uniroyal/Goodrich brands combined capture 30 percent of the OE tire segment. Goodyear brand tires capture the largest portion of sales in the U.S. replacement tire market: 15 percent of passenger car tires, 11 percent of light truck tires, and 23 percent of highway truck tires. Companywide share increases in each category when sales of its Kelly-Springfield brand are included. Goodyear’s relative competitive position is also due to the fact that they have the broadest line of tire products of any tire manufacturer and have the broadest retail coverage with almost 8,000 retail points of sale, most of which are company owned or franchised. 5.1Distribution Major manufacturers of tires capitalize on their reputation and experience as producers of building strong wholesale and retail dealer relationships and networks through which to sell their brand name replacement tires to vehicle owners. The industry uses â€Å"retail points of sale† to gauge the retail coverage of tire manufacturers and their brands. Goodyear has the broadest retail coverage with almost 8,000 retail points of sale. Independent tire dealers usually carry the brands of several major manufacturers and a discount priced private label brand to give a full assortment of qualities, brands, and price ranges to choose from. Retail tire outlets there were owned or franchised by the manufacturers carried only the manufacturer’s name brands and maybe a private label discounted price line. Department stores and major retail chains (like Sears) occasionally carried manufacturers’ brand tires but usually marketed only their own private label brands. In most co mmunities, price is the dominant competitive appeal in an  intensely competitive industry. Many dealers feature and push their private label brands of tires because the profit margins are higher. Dealer sponsored private label tires accounted for 15 to 20 percent of total replacement tire sales in the US in 1991. For this reason, it would be beneficial for Goodyear to consider providing a private label brand for Sears, if they decide to use them as a retail channel, to capture this growing market. 5.2Marketing Major tire producers often use network TV campaigns to promote their brands, introduce new types of tires, and pull customers to the retail dealer outlets. Network TV budgets commonly run from $10 million to $30 million, and their budgets for cooperative ads with dealers run from $20 million to $100 million. Print media is also commonly used extensively. 5.3Customers Few replacement buyers are very knowledgeable about tires and many end up choosing a tire based on price and some just follow the recommendation of their local dealer. Consumers are becoming more price sensitive/conscious while abandoning brand loyalty. This is important to remember because it defeats the purpose of presence in the original equipment segment. Therefore, being in a market segment, which is not as profitable, for a reason that is no longer viable, might be a strategic error? Most replacement tire customers do not have a preference, which makes it easy for tire salespeople to switch customers to private label brands that deliver higher profit margins 6.0DECISION MAKING PROCESS Decision to suggest Goodyear to accept the proposal offered by Sears and  award Sears to sell Eagle brand tire. The decision made was appropriate. From the case, it is clear to see that Goodyear was suffering from loss in market share and profits, thus it is essential that the decision made be executed to ensure that Goodyear would regain its competitive advantage, regain its market share, and turn its losses into profits 7.0conclusion and recommendation Goodyear defensive strategy would consist of changing their retail structure, declining market share in the replacement tire segment and have a flat original equipment volume. As for changing their retail structure they could do this by having non company owned or franchised company stores which are capturing a larger percentage of the tire replacement market. Discount, multi-brand independent dealer’s market share rose from 7% to 15% between 1982 and 1992. The reason that Sears is a good viable option is because of the declining market share in the replacement tire segment. Market share for replacement tires captured by retailers not serviced by Goodyear has grown from 17% to 35% (1982-1992) and market share loss of 3.2% over last four years. As for original equipment tire volume, the replacement tire market which represents 60% of Goodyear sales worldwide is more profitable that the original equipment market. Goodyear’s unit volume has plateaued in this segment at 38% . So I believe that only selling high performance Eagle brand tires at Sears is the best alternative for Goodyear. References 1. Roger A.K & Robert A.P (2013). Strategic Marketing Problems. Cases and Comments.(Thirteenth Edition).England. 2. Marketing Strategy. In Wikipedia. Retrieved October 25,2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing_strategy3.Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company. In Wikipedia Retrieved October 27, 2014 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goodyear_Tire_and_Rubber_Company4.Swot Analysis. In Mind Tools October 29, 2014 from http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTMC_05.htm

A Brand Plan report for Cadbury Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

A Brand Plan report for Cadbury - Essay Example In the year 1969, Cadbury merged with Schweppes and it was named as Cadbury Schweppes PLC. In February 2010, Kraft Foods took over the company and Cadbury PLC is now its subsidiary which is an international organization; it is commonly referred to as Cadbury in the market (Kraft Foods, 2011). Currently, it has its presence in more than sixty countries and has a workforce of more than fifty thousand people (Wallace, 2010). Strategically, the company has been positioned in the market as the leading supplier of chocolate and sugar confectionary worldwide. Since 1905, ‘Dairy Milk’ is the most successful product of the company that has given it a top ranking in the confectionary industry (Burns, 2008). In terms of revenue, Dairy Milk has grown to become a famous and highly accredited moulded chocolate bar in UK and worldwide. The basis foundation of the strategic success of Cadbury comprises of its three strong core pillars i.e. premium quality, value for money and sound advertising (Infor, 2010). The mission statement of Cadbury is â€Å"to be the best and biggest confectionary company across the globe while delivering a superior shareholder return through an efficient process that fosters growth of the company and ensures complete capitalization of the company’s core capabilities.† (Shelley, 2009) ... In terms of revenue, Dairy Milk has grown to become a famous and highly accredited moulded chocolate bar in UK and worldwide. The basis foundation of the strategic success of Cadbury comprises of its three strong core pillars i.e. premium quality, value for money and sound advertising (Infor, 2010). 2.0 Mission Statement of Cadbury The mission statement of Cadbury is â€Å"to be the best and biggest confectionary company across the globe while delivering a superior shareholder return through an efficient process that fosters growth of the company and ensures complete capitalization of the company’s core capabilities.† (Shelley, 2009) 3.0 Situation Review 3.1 PEST Analysis Since the business environment is changing at a fast pace, it has become vital for every organisation to ensure that it monitors the happenings that are taking place in its surrounding so that it can manage its operations effectively and alter the business plans and strategies accordingly (Kepferer, 20 05; Kotler & Keller, 2005). The PEST analysis of confectionary industry of UK is discussed below: 1. Political – There are various policies and legal requirements that Cadbury will have to comply with to ensure that it conducts its business operations within legal and ethical business operation boundaries such as Weight and Measures Act, Minimum Wages Act, Equal Employment Opportunity Act, Trade Description Act and many more. 2. Economic – An increase in per capita income means that the people will have more money to spend, even better penetration opportunities in developing countries that can increase the revenue amount and increase in demand is expected as there is an increase in the urban population. 3.

Sacred Time Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Sacred Time - Essay Example tice, and the art and clearly marked sacred spaces.†1 Many times people have relied on their dreams in order to make predictions or help them in their daily lives by providing them guidance. Dreams can be very helpful to people who are looking for answers in their lives, and dreams were used in several different religions to make sense of the world around the people who were dreaming. My most sacred space in my own personal life is in my room in the house. I always make sure to close the door whenever I come in, so that I don’t let in â€Å"bad airs,† also called malos aires in Spanish. Of course, I’m sure that sounds a little bit superstitious, but I am always careful about things which I see as sacred in my personal life. I regard and take care of stones which have power, and I don’t see anything New-Agey about that at all†¦it is just my way of belief. I believe in the power of stones. Their energies can subsequently help or hurt someone. The truth is, all of life and the entire earth is sacred. We must learn how to use these spaces every

Pot use may mellow out men's sexual function Article

Pot use may mellow out men's sexual function - Article Example On this count alone the use of pot must be dismissed forthwith. Any induced increase in sex, is bound to have unfavorable consequences. This is pure commonsense. The view that male smokers could be courting sexual dysfunction is gaining ground and getting acceptance. Let me illustrate this issue with an example for better understanding. I like coffee. Drink one cup, fine; drink two cups, somewhat fine! Drink three cups, somewhat difficult to digest; and the fourth cup†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ I vomit! This is true of all additions. If any addiction takes over the human control system, it will definitely overtake him and the concerned human being will lose control and will be trapped into that addiction. â€Å"But recent research – including the finding that the penis contains receptors for marijuana's active ingredient – suggests that young men may want to think about long-term effects before rolling a joint.† The younger generation needs to take care and should not fall in to the trap of this drug.

Has neoliberalism impacted men and women differently Essay - 1

Has neoliberalism impacted men and women differently - Essay Example The economic, political and cultural realities in throughout the globe have been undergoing radical transformation for the last more than three decades. The shifts towards neoliberalism have converged the concepts of liberalism with the market ideologies and principles. It has indeed been crucial to the extent it exerted a crucial impact in altering the gender geographies in many parts of the world. However it has also brought in new issues, new modes of regulating the selves and subjectivities, new ideological apparatuses stressing upon certain representations and exemplars, lifestyles, culminating in hegemonic forms of masculinity and femininity, and eventually the hegemony of market itself. A significant platform through which this mode of â€Å"neoliberal governmentality has been understood and discussed is the very idea of instrumentality, as Butler, Joan Scott and others have done† (Gill and Schraff, 2011: 5). ... technological devices have not only not eradicated the traditional structures of inequality but also have exacerbated the complexities through which the former structures are reproduced and/or operationalised in albeit new fashions. The two broad epistemological and pragmatic fields where the structures of inequality, subjugation and subjectivisation are constantly articulated are one, political and cultural and two economic and the global circulation of capital (Butler, 2004; Gill 2009; Gill and Schraff 2011). For the last more than three decades scholars and activists around the world have pointed at the varying schemes of capital at the worldwide level and the surging motives of profit relying chiefly on the availability of labour and, sometimes, resources from the so called Third world nations. This global paradigm is further conditioned within the gender realities that persist within these geo-political terrains to the extent women and children, especially from lower classes, ha ve continued to remain the primary victims of these neoliberal, neocolonial tactics (Nash and Safa 1976; Nash and Fernhdez-Kelly 1983; Leacock and Safa 1986). These gender realities were invariably products of a global economic circuits that was and still is western centric and a western centred discourse of human rights according to which these geo-political locales, on the one hand, were depicted as having highly degenerated human rights situation and, on the other hand, opened new areas for further socio-economic interventions (Nash and Safa 1976; Nash and Fernhdez-Kelly 1983; Leacock and Safa 1986). The relationship between the rich and poor in terms of an imbalance between the global west and the rest (Hall, 1994) is another major paradigm where the question of gender is hijacked and

The Importance of Managing Change in the Air Transport Industry Essay

The Importance of Managing Change in the Air Transport Industry - Essay Example The paper suggests the steps that should be taken by the company to ensure success. The first step involves the creation of the ‘big message’. This step is important for Su as it will help her understand what is in for her. This step will make out the main message the individuals are involved in the change need to hear. In this case, Su was the only individual that was affected by this change. This message contains the major reasons for the change that include cost reduction, increased demand for the work force in Edinburg as well as to facilitate her skills and experience. Additionally, it should state the benefits that the organization will get from this change. This message should be done in a concise and clear language and communicated through the appropriate channels. This means that there should be official communication of the message by the human resource management team. Su should demonstrate acceptance of the terms and conditions of the change by signing an off icial agreement statement. It is important to get the support of the management while making this decision and find individuals that are influential within the organization to support this move. It is important to acknowledge that this influence could either be positive or negative and it is imperative to align oneself with the parties that support the decision. At this stage, it is significant to communicate to Su on the benefits that linked with the change. This is the couple with the communication of the benefits that accrue to both entities. There are various examples that should be communicated to her at this stage. First, the individual benefits such as improved flexibility with regards to the job location as well as a more challenging work environment that results in career growth and development. The company benefits should be efficiently communicated to Su including increased benefits from her skills and expertise as well as the benefits associated with having a diverse wor kforce. It can be concluded that the ‘big message’ defines priorities and establishes the tone for the subsequent steps.

Faxed Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Faxed - Essay Example Traditional methods of teaching and assessment are increasingly being questioned in the light of self efficacy – a factor that has not been taken into consideration previously in assessing learning outcomes but which is becoming more and more relevant in today’s educational context. According to Fullan (2001), â€Å"leading in a culture of change is about unlocking the mysteries of living organizations.† On this basis old and established systems of education are increasingly being found in need of reform. Structural reforms have been mooted in the educational system, in order to bring about changes in teaching and learning practices (Cohen, 1995). The E 2020 computer program has been designed for the use of special education students in high school. It consists of computerized lessons and tests and each student works individually on these programs. The use of technology as an aid to learning, especially for high school, career oriented students has been shown to result in positive payoffs in terms of enhancing student achievement at several high schools.(Readers Digest 2002). The use of computers enables students to take responsibility for their own learning and thereby enhances their self efficacy, producing better results in terms of achievement. These aspects must be taken into consideration by teachers in order to enhance self efficacy of students and maximize the potentially beneficial effects of using the E 2020 computer program to enhance student achievement. The first aspect identifies the importance of addressing the concerns of the minorities within a majority setting in order to ensure that they are able to develop self efficacy. This would require that differences need to be accounted for and addressed. As an example, the theories of Michael Gurian have highlighted the fact that boys are not faring well under the current educational systems and

Practical Limits to a Skyscraper Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Practical Limits to a Skyscraper - Case Study Example Steel can support structures of height about 6.2 miles or even more than that, whereas advanced composite steel has the tendency to support as much as 62 miles tall skyscrapers (Anissimov). Skyscrapers (layoutsparks.com). Therefore, limiting the strength of the structural materials is not the cardinal factors that may impose limits on the height of a skyscraper. There are several other factors that dictate the constructors the height of a skyscraper. There is no doubt in the fact that a skyscraper is mostly empty because it is supposed to provide room for the inhabitants. Therefore, the weight of a skyscraper is often quite less than what its massive appearance may cause the analyzer to estimate. Three factors that primarily limit the height of a skyscraper are budget, elevators, and the wind. As we go higher, the speed of wind increases and ultimately becomes dangerous for the safety and sustainability of the skyscraper. It has been found that with calm weather conditions in a tempe rate region, the speed of wind at heights of 2 km, 4 km, 6 km, 8 km, 10 km, and 12 km is 22 mph, 56 mph, 90 mph, 134 mph, 179 mph, and 200 mph respectively (Anissimov). This clearly indicates that as the skyscrapers become taller, they have to withstand greater wind pressure. Skyscrapers frequently make use of glass for improving the look.

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Example for Free

The role of Intelligence in the formulation of government policies Essay Introduction Espionage is the secret collection of information, or intelligence, that the source of such information wishes to protect from disclosure. Intelligence refers to evaluated and processed information needed to make decisions. The term can be used with reference to business, military, economic, or political decisions, but it most commonly relates to governmental foreign and defense policy. Intelligence generally has a national security connotation and therefore exists in an aura of secrecy.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage, or spying, is illegal according to national laws. Spying proceeds against the attempts of counter-espionage (or counter-intelligence) agencies to protect the secrecy of the information desired.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   International espionage methods and operations have few boundaries. They have been romanticized in popular fiction and the mass media, but in reality, espionage exists in a secret world of deception, fraud, and sometimes violence. Espionage involves the recruiting of agents in foreign nations; efforts to encourage the disloyalty of those possessing significant information; and audio surveillance as well as the use of a full range of modern photographic, sensing, and detection devices and other techniques of eliciting secret information (see C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The intents of this paper are to: (1) trace how espionage started; (2) know the justification and international sanction of intelligence; (3) know the recruitment agents; (4) be aware how espionages are gathered; (5) be acquainted espionage agencies and networks; (6) be informed how espionage during the 19th century and early 20th century; (7) know the role of espionage during World War II and Modern Era; (8) realized how is espionage in politics and industry; (9) learn about the   Espionage Act of 1917; (10) know about Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as one of the agencies of intelligence and; (11)   know about its implications of modern technology. Background How espionage started?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence was early recognized as a vital tool of statecraft—of diplomacy or war. Writing almost 2,500 years ago, the Chinese military theorist Sunzi stressed the importance of intelligence. His book The Art of War (c. 500 BC) gave detailed instructions for organizing an espionage system that would include double agents and defectors. Intelligence, however, was haphazardly organized by rulers and military chiefs until the rise of nationalism in the 18th century and the growth of standing armies and diplomacy (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). III. Discussion Justification and International Sanction of Intelligence   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In order to adopt and implement foreign policy, plan military strategy and organize armed forces, conduct diplomacy, negotiate arms control agreements, or participate in international organization activities, nations have vast information requirements. Not surprisingly, many governments maintain some kind of intelligence capability as a matter of survival in a world where dangers and uncertainties still exist. The cold war may have ended, but hostilities continue in parts of Eastern Europe, the former Soviet Union, the Middle East, and elsewhere. Indeed, the collapse of old political blocs in the late 1980s has even increased international uncertainty and consequent need for information (see Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All nations have laws against espionage, but most sponsor spies in other lands. Because of the clandestine nature of espionage, no reliable count exists of how many intelligence officers—only a small percentage of whom are actually spies—there are in the world. A common estimate is that the United States today still employs some 200,000 intelligence personnel. The number that was generally ascribed to the Soviet intelligence establishment in the 1980s was 400,000, a figure that included border guards and internal security police (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). The recruitment agents   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Today, scores of developed nations have efficient intelligence organizations with systematic programmes for recruiting new agents. Agents come from three main sources: the university world, where students are sought and trained for intelligence careers; the armed services and police forces, where some degree of intelligence proficiency may already have been attained; and the underground world of espionage, which produces an assortment of people, including criminal informers, with relevant experience (see Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Those who do the actual spying, which may involve stealing information or performing disloyal acts of disclosure, are led to this work by various motivations. Greed or financial need is a leading incentive in many cases, but other motivations, such as ambition, political ideology, or nationalistic idealism, can figure importantly: Oleg Vladimirovich Penkovsky, a highly placed Soviet officer, provided valuable information to Western intelligence services in the belief that the West must be warned of danger. H. A. R. (â€Å"Kim†) Philby, the notorious English spy, worked for the Soviet Union on ideological grounds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Some spies must be carefully recruited and enticed into cooperation; others volunteer. The latter must be handled with extreme caution, as it is common for double agents to be among the volunteers. Double agents are spies who pretend to be defecting, but in reality maintain their original loyalty. Counter-intelligence staffs are always sceptical of volunteers or defectors and restrict their use for positive espionage purposes. In some cases, the most valuable spy of all is the â€Å"agent-in-place†, the person who remains in a position of trust with access to highly secret information, but who has been recruited by a foreign intelligence service; such a spy is known as a â€Å"mole† (see Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A high-priority espionage target is the penetration of the various international terrorist organizations. If the leadership of such units can be infiltrated by spies, advance knowledge can be obtained of the location and identity of intended victims, the nature of the disguises being used by the hit team, and the secret sources of weapons. Such information could be used to foil terrorist operations. International drug trafficking, it has been asserted, can similarly be thwarted by effective espionage, but the problem is complex, and only limited success has been achieved. How espionages are gathered?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence work, including spying, proceeds in a five-step process. Initially, what the decision makers need to know is considered, and requirements are set. The second step is collecting the desired information, which requires knowing where the information is located and who can best obtain it. The information may be available in a foreign newspaper, radio broadcast, or other open source; or it may be obtained only by the most sophisticated electronic means, or by planting an agent within the decision-making system of the target area. The third step is intelligence production, in which the collected raw data are assembled, evaluated, and collated into the best possible answer to the question initially asked. The fourth step is communicating the processed information to the decision maker. To be useful, information must be presented in a timely, accurate, and understandable form. The fifth and crucial step is the use of intelligence. The decision maker may choose to ignore the information conveyed, thus possibly courting disaster; on the other hand, a judgment may be made on the basis of information that proves inaccurate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999).The point is that the decision maker must make the final crucial judgment about whether, or how, to use the information supplied. The intelligence process can fail at each or any of these five basic steps. Espionage Agencies and Networks   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The worlds intelligence, espionage, counter-intelligence, and covert action programmes may be said to follow three distinct organizational patterns: the American, the totalitarian (exemplified by the Communist regimes), and the British (parliamentary) systems. Similarities exist among them, yet distinctions are sharp.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the United States the Central Intelligence Agency continues to sit at the corner of an elaborate complex of some dozen separate intelligence organizations. Each has a specific role and a carefully guarded area of operations. The director of central intelligence is both head of the CIA and the presidents principal intelligence adviser. In the latter job the director theoretically coordinates all the separate intelligence units, setting their requirements, budgets, and operational assignments. In reality, many of the major units in the system—such as the Defense Intelligence Agency and the huge National Security Agency/Central Security Service, both part of the Department of Defense—operate in quasi-independence. The National Security Agency, which engages in code making and code breaking, the science of cryptography, is much larger in staff size and budget than the CIA (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001). The military also maintains a major tactical intelligence capability to assist field commanders in making on-the-spot decisions. Other major units in the US intelligence system include the State Departments Bureau of Intelligence and Research, the Department of the Treasury, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Drug Enforcement Administration of the Department of Justice. The US model influenced the intelligence structures of those countries where the United States was dominant at the end of World War II, such as West Germany (now part of the united Federal Republic of Germany), Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast to the federated American intelligence structure, the typical totalitarian setup is highly centralized. In the Soviet Union, the power of the KGB pervaded every aspect of national life. Its director was generally a powerful member of the Politburo (the governing political committee of the USSR). The KGB had two chief directorates. The most important was the First Directorate, which was responsible for foreign intelligence gathering. The Second Directorates principal responsibilities involved providing counter-espionage protection to the regime and recruiting foreign agents within the Soviet Union. Its targets included diplomats and journalists stationed in the USSR, foreign students, business people, tourists, and visiting delegations (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003).Most Eastern European governments followed the KGB model in their intelligence operations. China, Cuba, and other Communist nations still do.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third model of intelligence systems is the British, a confederation of agencies coordinated by a Cabinet subcommittee and accountable to the Cabinet and prime minister. The two principal units are the Secret Intelligence Service (often called MI6, signifying â€Å"military intelligence†) and the Security Service (popularly called MI5). These labels reflect the military origins of these services, which are now in the civilian sector. MI6 is similar to the CIA and the KGB in that it carries out espionage, counter-espionage, and covert action overseas. MI5 is charged with domestic counter-intelligence and internal security. Scotland Yard maintains a â€Å"special branch†, which operates as the overt arm of the security service; it makes arrests and offers evidence in espionage cases while MI5 agents remain in the background. A number of specialized units also operate within the British intelligence community. These include the Government Communications Centre (for code making and breaking), the Ministry of Defense intelligence sections, and various Foreign Office intelligence groups. With some national variations, the intelligence services of France, Italy, Israel, and the Commonwealth of Nations countries follow the general British pattern of organization (see Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003). During the 19th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Political espionage is thought to have first been used systematically by Joseph Fouchà ©, duc dOtrante, minister of police during the French Revolution and the reign of Napoleon. Under Fouchà ©s direction, a network of police agents and professional spies uncovered conspiracies to seize power organized by the Jacobins and by Bourbon Royalist à ©migrà ©s. The Austrian statesman Prince von Metternich also established an efficient organization of political and military spies early in the 19th century. Better known than either of these organizations was the dreaded Okhrana (Department for Defence of Public Security and Order) of the Russian tsars, created in 1825 to uncover opposition to the regime.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the mid-19th century the secret police of Prussia was reorganized and invested with the duty of safeguarding the external as well as the internal security of the country. The Prussian espionage system played an important part in preparations to unify the German states in the German Empire. It also covered France with a network of about 30,000 agents whose work contributed to the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. Not until the latter part of the 19th century, however, were permanent intelligence bureaux created by modern states (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Early 20th century   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Systematic espionage aided the Japanese in defeating the Russians in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In preparing for World War I the Germans again flooded France with a host of agents, some of whom were disguised as trade representatives, teachers, agricultural labourers, or domestics. The most famous of these agents was Mata Hari, who posed as an Indian dancer in Paris. German agents also engaged in attempts to sabotage American national defense both before and after the US entry into World War I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most nations, however, entered World War I with inadequate espionage staffs, and the war was frequently fought on the basis of poor intelligence. The lessons of that war, along with rapid advances in technology, especially in communications and aviation, spurred a major growth in intelligence agencies. This was further stimulated by the advent of Fascist governments in Europe and a military dictatorship in Japan, all of which had expansionist foreign policies and the creation of counter-espionage agencies such as the Gestapo in Nazi Germany. These developments led other, democratic countries to establish counter-espionage systems as well (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century. 1999). Espionage during World War II   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   World War II was the great stimulus to intelligence services worldwide. Modern military and communications technology put a premium on accurate and quick information, as well as on efforts to protect the security of sensitive information. Some of the great battles of World War II were actually intelligence and counter-intelligence battles. Only in recent years have some of the exploits, and failures, in this secret war been disclosed. Notable is Operation Double Cross, in which the British captured practically all the German spies in Great Britain during the war and turned them into double agents who sent false information back to Germany. Also, the British and their allies were able to break the German secret code, providing access to many of the enemys secret transmissions (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The surprise attack by Japan on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, was a great intelligence success for the Japanese and an intelligence failure for the Americans. That failure stimulated the post-war growth of a massive intelligence apparatus in the United States. Before World War II the United States had virtually no intelligence system; after the war the CIA became world famous for its pervasive international surveillance, joining the MI6, the KGB, the Service de Documentation Extà ©rieure et de Contre-Espionage of France, Israels foreign intelligence agency Mossad, Chinas Social Affairs Department, and numerous other intelligence agencies in a massive network of espionage and counter-espionage efforts (see Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999). Modern Era   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the mid-1970s, as a result of disillusionment with the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal, and the policies of dà ©tente, many Americans began to question the role of the CIA. Mass-media disclosures of intelligence agency abuses and failures were followed by investigations by presidential commissions and congressional committees, which resulted in new guidelines for secret operations and a new structure for executive and legislative supervision. Controversy over the CIAs role and control remains, however. One result is an ever-increasing amount of public information about intelligence services around the world (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). In Britain, MI5 remained unrecognized by statute until 1989, and MI6 until 1994. Espionage in Politics and Industry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Intelligence and espionage are terms most commonly associated with national foreign policies, yet secret information is needed to make decisions in politics, commerce, and industry. Political parties have always been interested in the strategic plans of their opponents or in any information that might discredit them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Most large corporate enterprises today have divisions for strategic planning that require intelligence reports. Competitive enterprises are undeniably interested in the plans of their competitors; despite laws against such practices, industrial espionage is difficult to detect and control and is known to be an active tool for gaining such foreknowledge. Many of the tools of government intelligence work are used, including electronic surveillance and aerial photographic reconnaissance, and attempts are even made to recruit defectors (see â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5). Espionage Act of 1917   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Espionage Act of 1917 is a principal United States legislation prohibiting espionage for a foreign country and providing heavy penalties for such activity. As amended in 1940 and 1970, it is still in force.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1917 law provided steep fines and imprisonment for collecting and transmitting to foreign power information related to US national defense and for interfering with the recruitment or loyalty of the armed forces. Use of the US mail for material urging treason or resistance to US laws was prohibited; sabotage, especially of trading ships, was subjected to severe penalties; the movement of neutral ships in US waters was regulated (in order to stop such vessels from shipping arms or supplies to an enemy country); and the fraudulent use of passports as well as the unauthorized representation of a foreign government were prohibited. An important amendment to the law, usually called the Sedition Act, was passed in 1918 but repealed in 1921; it forbade spoken or printed attacks on the US government, Constitution, or flag (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   During the outbreak of public hysteria following the US entry into World War I, the 1917 and 1918 laws permitted about 1,500 trials and prison sentences; freedom of the press was curtailed. In 1919 this led US Supreme Court justices Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Louis Brandeis to state the principle, later much cited, that unpatriotic speech and publications were illegal only if they constituted a â€Å"clear and present danger† to national security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The 1940 revision of the Espionage Act increased its penalties. The application of the law to propaganda was limited by a Supreme Court decision in 1944. During World War II about 160 people were convicted under the Espionage Act. Also under this act, the American Communists Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg were convicted of spying and executed in 1953 (see â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7). Central Intelligence Agency   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), agency of the Executive Office of the President of the United States, created in 1947, together with the National Security Council. The CIA is Americas first permanent peacetime intelligence agency responsible for keeping the government informed of foreign actions affecting the nations interests. It was established by the National Security Act of 1947 and is charged with coordinating all US intelligence activities, as well as such functions and duties related to intelligence as directed by the National Security Council (see Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002). A director and deputy director of the agency are appointed by the president with the consent of the Senate (see Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999). History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIAs original mission was primarily intelligence gathering, but after Communist takeovers in Eastern Europe and mainland China, the National Security Council directed that the agency engage in political, covert psychological, paramilitary, and economic operations. United States participation in the Korean War (1950-1953) placed additional requirements on the CIA to support the combat forces.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the period from 1953 to 1961 the CIA was at the height of its cold war activities, carrying out continuous foreign intelligence, counter-intelligence, political action, and propaganda operations. In late 1961 the CIA was reorganized to put more emphasis on science, technology, and internal management. The agency was heavily committed in the war in South East Asia. In 1963 an Office of National Intelligence Programs Evaluation was established to coordinate community activities; this was replaced in 1972 by an Intelligence Community Staff (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Activities   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is divided into four main directorates, or branches. The Directorate of Operations conducts covert activities around the world. The Directorate of Science and Technology interprets data gathered from electronic transmissions, spy satellites, and other sources. The Directorate of Intelligence produces analyses for policy makers by synthesizing information from the CIA and other federal agencies. The Directorate of Administration oversees the agencys finances and personnel and monitors internal security.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The activities of the CIA are many and varied. Clandestine collection of vital information that cannot be obtained by any overt means requires recruiting agents who can obtain the needed intelligence without detection. Intelligence reports from all sources are reviewed by analysts who produce studies ranging from basic surveys to estimates of future developments. Current intelligence of major importance is detailed in daily, weekly, or monthly bulletins. Periodic projections concerning key nations are presented as national intelligence estimates (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA is also responsible for counter-espionage activities. Its mission is to prevent the placement of foreign agents in sensitive US agencies; domestically this work is coordinated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Covert political operations have ranged from subsidizing friendly foreign politicians, parties, or pressure groups to providing assistance in combating subversion. Paramilitary operations support certain exile forces with training and equipment; one example was the CIAs support of Cuban exiles before and during the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Modern technology has increased the capabilities of intelligence collection. In the 1960s high-altitude aircraft introduced a new era of aerial photography; this was quickly followed by transmissions from space satellites. Similarly, underseas intelligence work was advanced by vessels capable of raising a submarine from great depths (see Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999). Controversy and investigations   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All clandestine activities are considered abhorrent by some people. Many, however, recognize secret intelligence collection necessary to protect national security. Generally, people support covert political activities in times of crisis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The role of the CIA director as the principal US intelligence officer and coordinator of activities of the other agencies has often been in dispute. Over the years frequent proposals have been made to divest the head of the CIA of the coordinating role and assign that function to a member of the White House staff.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The CIA has been investigated a number of times by various task force groups, one of which in 1949 recommended major reorganization of CIA operations. Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed a group to analyze the failure.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In 1975 the CIA came under extensive Congressional and White House examination. It was found that the agency had been engaged in â€Å"unlawful† domestic spying activities and had been implicated in assassination attempts abroad. As a result of these investigations, permanent Congressional committees were established to oversee CIA operations. By 1980 these committees had exclusive jurisdiction over review of CIA activities (see Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   By 1986, however, the agency was involved in a new controversy concerning the secret sale of arms to Iran and the disbursement of monies from the sale to the rebels (known as the Contras) fighting the government of Nicaragua. The late CIA director William J. Casey, among others, was suspected of being implicated in the arms scandal. As the 1990s began, the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the dissolution of the USSR led the CIA to revise its mission and organization to meet changing world conditions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The United States government released the first of three batches of classified documents expected to shed light on relations between Chile and the United States during the 1970s in June 1999. These documents included reports by the Central Intelligence Agency referring to covert operations intended to promote a military coup and overturn the government of President Allende.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There was further criticism for the CIA after the terrorist attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001, when it was accused of not having done enough to warn of, and possibly prevent, the impending disaster. Over the following months the organization was subsequently given extra powers and resources to conduct increased covert operations as part of the war on terrorism; it also began to develop closer ties with the FBI (see T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999). Conclusion Implications of Modern Technology   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All forms and techniques of intelligence are now aided by an accelerating technology of communications and a variety of computing and measuring devices. Miniaturized cameras and microfilm have made it easier for people engaged in all forms of espionage to photograph secret documents and conceal the films. Artificial satellites also have an espionage function—that of aerial photography for such purposes as detecting secret military installations. Information held or programmes running on computers are vulnerable to penetration by hackers, whether acting independently or for other bodies. The vanguard of these developments is highly secret, but it is known that telephones can be tapped without wires, rooms can be bugged (planted with electronic listening and recording devices) without entry, and photographs can be made in the dark. Of course this same technology is used in countermeasures, and the competition escalates between those seeking secret information and those trying to protect it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In foreign embassies in sensitive areas, confidential discussions routinely take place in plastic bubbles encasing secure rooms, to protect the confidentiality of information. Intelligence agencies have long been known to be staffed with expert lip readers. Privacy of communications remains under constant assault by technological developments that offer threats to, but perhaps also promises for, human progress. References C. S. Trahair, Richard. Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies and Secret Operations, 2004. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. T. Richelson, Jeffrey. A Century of Spies: Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 1999. Oxford University Press, New York. Carney, Ralph M. Citizen Espionage: Studies in Trust and Betrayal. 2001. Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. Bungert, Heike Et Al. Secret Intelligence in the Twentieth Century. 2003. Frank Cass. London. Herrington, Stuart A. Traitors among Us: Inside the Spy Catchers World, 1999. Presidio Press, Novato, CA. Marchetti, Victor and Marks, John D. The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence, 2001. Dell, New York. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. Sexton Jr., Donal J. Signals Intelligence in World War II: A Research Guide. 1999. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT. Darling, Arthur B. The Central Intelligence Agency: An Instrument of Government, to 1950. 2002. Pennsylvania State University Press, University Park, PA. Macpherson, Nelson. American Intelligence in War-Time London: The Story of the Oss, 2003. Frank Cass, London. Hulnick, Arthur S. and Valcourt, Richard R. Fixing the Spy Machine: Preparing American Intelligence for the Twenty-First Century, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT. â€Å"Espionage†. Grolier Encyclopedia of Knowledge, pp. 342-347, vol. 5. â€Å"Intelligence†. New Standard Encyclopedia, pp. 431-437, vol. 7. Lowenthal, Mark M. U.S. Intelligence: Evolution and Anatomy, 1999. Praeger, Westport, CT.

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

NSAID Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs 1. Introduction 1.1 Ibuprofen, a Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drug (NSAID) Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are one of the most commonly used and therapeutically effective groups of drugs in the medicinal field. They suppress inflammation in a similar way as steroids. They are also better than steroids in such a way that they cause less side effects of sedation, addiction and respiratory depression. NSAIDs act by inhibiting cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, COX-1 and COX-2. This type of inhibition results in reduced productions of precursors such as thromboxane, prostaglandin and leukotriene that are involved in the inflammatory pathways. NSAIDs are poorly water-soluble drugs (Hassan et al., 2009). Often, they are microencapsulated using the emulsion solvent diffusion method (Leo et al., 2000) to modify and retard drug release from pharmaceutical dosage form. Further, encapsulation of NSAIDs into polymeric nanoparticles, followed by their encapsulation into polymeric microparticles has proved to reduce the release rate and suppress the undesired initial burst. For instance, Ibuprofen-loaded PCL (Poly-epsilon-caprolactone) nanoparticles inside ethylcellulose/Eudragit RS polymeric microparticles was successfully encapsulated, which effectively exhibited a control of both the release rate and burst effect (Hassan et al., 2009; Socha et al., 2007). Ibuprofen, an NSAID, was selected as the model drug in this study. The low solubility (0.03-2.5mg/ml) (Khang et al., 2007) and short plasma half-life of approximately 2 hours of Ibuprofen makes it an ideal choice to prepare a controlled release dosage form. Ibuprofen is commonly used to relieve the symptoms of mild and moderate pain and inflammation in conditions such as migraine, dental pain, dysmennorhea, headaches, back pain, muscular pain, rheumatic pain, cold and flu symptoms. Also, it is used to treat chronic diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis in which a controlled release dosage form is desired for symptom relief (Leo et al., 2000). Although parenteral Ibuprofen formulation has been produced recently, there is no controlled release dosage form available in the pharmaceutical market. Considering that Ibuprofen is a anti-inflammatory agent used widely, this study of preparation of a biodegradable and controlled release parenteral Ibuprofen dosage form, based on nanoparticles will definitely of great interest. For example, the intraarticular administration of Ibuprofen would offer an effective management of chronic rheumatoid arthritis. Also, it will serve an alternative to corticosteroid administration to avoid the devastating side effects (Hassan et al., 2009; Fernandez-Carballido et al., 2004). Besides, two types of parenteral formulations of Ibuprofen are now available in the pharmaceutical market. One of them is Pedea which is used for the therapy of ductus arteriosus in preterm newborns (Hassan et al., 2009, Aranda and Thomas, 2006). Its use in human pre-mature newborns was also demonstrated to be able to improve the cerebral blood flow regulation and potentially offer some degree of neuroprotection (Aranda and Thomas, 2006). It is a normal aqueous solution dosage form which is injected into the bloodstream, allowing fast therapeutic activity. Another parenteral Ibuprofen formulation is marketed by Cumberland Pharmaceuticals recently– the injectable ibuprofen formulation named Caldolor which is used for the treatment of pain and fever. Caldolor has also proved to have the advantage of reducing pain and fever significantly within 30 minutes. Although rapid attainment of therapeutic effect can be achieved, the short plasma half-life of Ibuprofen would have resulted in frequent administration in order to maintain plasma therapeutic levels. For instance Caldolor needs to be administered intravenously every 6 hours in order to maintain efficient plasma therapeutic levels. Therefore, controlled drug delivery systems would be a better yet excellent alternative to multiple injections. And, in such case, polymeric nanoparticles will be the best candidate for parenteral drug delivery. This polymeric nanoparticulate drug delivery system would be potentially used to increase bioavailability, provide prolonged therapeutic plasma levels and reduce administration frequency. 1.2 Controlled Drug Delivery and Drug Targetting To deliver drugs from the administration site to the target site, a delivery system is needed as drugs could not deliver by themselves (Davis and Illum, 1998; Bala et al., 2004). An ideal drug delivery system will possess both the properties of targeting and controlling the drug release (Thassu et al., 2007). Targeting ensures high effectiveness of the drug and at the same time reduces the possible devastating side effects that may be experienced. This is particularly beneficial when dealing with drugs for instance, drugs used in cancer therapy to ensure that only affected cancer cells but not healthy cells are killed (Brannon-Peppas and Blanchette, 2004). The reduction of side effects can also be attained through controlled release dosing systems. This study will focus on the parenteral controlled-release dosage forms. 1.2.1 Rationale for Parenteral Controlled-release Drug Delivery Parenteral controlled-release dosage forms have been proved to be useful for treating disease (Kydonieus, 1992). However, there is no single controlled-release technology that has proved to be effective in treating disease because of the diversity of drug properties, dosing levels, treatment durations as well as patient acceptability and cost. Therefore, an excellent controlled release technology is needed to be selected for each drug and associated disease treatment. The distribution of drug in the body after parenteral administration well depends entirely on the physicochemical properties of the drug. Conventional drug delivery is typically illustrated by drug administered via bolus injection, in which the most of the therapeutic agents in the drug are released immediately after the administration, causing a rapid increase of the plasma drug concentration levels (Uhrich et al., 1999). Drug concentration is then seen to fluctuate between the side effect level and the minimum therapeutic level, resulting in alternate periods of toxicity and ineffectiveness (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). As a consequence, higher dosage drug is needed to be administered repeatedly to maintain the therapeutic drug concentration at steady state level. Problems, hence, arise as multiple injections are not favoured by most patients. Therefore, in order to improve efficacy, patient compliance and convenience, a controlled-release parenteral dosage forms that can last for longer period of time after a single administration will be more beneficial. This controlled release over an extended time is also of great benefits for drugs that are rapidly metabolized and eliminated from the body after administration. This is because controlled release maintains drug concentration at steady state level for a sufficient duration at the target sites, where the rate of drug release is equivalent to the rate of drug elimination, thus keeping the drug concentration within the ideal therapeutic window as well as avoiding substantial fluctuations. As a result, frequent injections can be avoided. 1.3 Nanotechnology for Controlled Drug Delivery In the endeavour to design a parenteral controlled release dosage form, a number of drug delivery systems, such as emulsions, micelles, liposomes and nanoparticles have been developed (Kydonieus, 1992; Hassan et al., 2009). In fact, injectable, biodegradable nanosphere products are the most recent technology developed for parenteral controlled-release dosage forms. This termed nanoparticulate drug delivery system, which comprises of colloidal particles of nanosize range, provides a suitable mean of delivering not only small molecular weight drugs but also macromolecules such as hormones, proteins, peptides and nucleic acids (Bala et al., 2004; Panyam and Labhasetwar, 2003). Furthermore, the nanoparticulate drug delivery system evidences the successful development of the nanotechnology. The prefix â€Å"nano† is derived from the Greek word dwarf (Thassu et al., 2007). One nanometer (nm) is equivalent to one-billionth of a meter. Materials in the nanometer size range can have substantial properties compared with the same materials at a larger size, for instance materials in the micrometer size range (Hans and Lowman, 2002). The term â€Å"nanotechnology† was coined in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi, a professor of the Tokyo Science University, Japan to describe materials in nanometers (Kydonieu, 1992). In recent years, nanotechnology has gained much attention that there has been an increasing investment trend from governments and private sector business in many parts of the world to expand research in nanoscale science and technology. Generally, nanotechnology means any technology performed on a nanoscale that involves both science and engineering (Bhushan, 2004). It encompasses the manufacture and application of biological, chemical and physical systems at scales that range from individual atoms or molecules to nanoscale dimensions. Also, it integrates the resulting nanostructures into larger systems (Bhushan, 2004). Controlled drug delivery nanotechnology has become one of the most advancing areas of science that contributes to human health care. This field of pharmaceutical technology has grown and expanded rapidly these days. And it is believed that such delivery system will definitely bring abundant advantages compared to conventional drug delivery system. 1.4 Natural and Synthetic Polymers in Pharmaceutical Systems Polymers are high molecular weight substances that are made up of repeating monomer units. In order to develop a successful nanoparticulate delivery system, it is essentially important to select an appropriate polymeric matrix. Polymers nanospheres employed to deliver drugs in a sustained release manner can be either biodegradable or non-biodegradable (Uhrich et al., 1999). The controlled release can be achieved by combining the biodegradable polymer with a drug so that the active agent is released from the system in a predesigned way. Despite the fact that controlled drug delivery has various advantages, the possible drawbacks cannot be overlooked: the undesirable by-products from degradation, potential toxicity or non-biocompatibility of the materials used, any surgery involved to remove or implant the system, the likehood of patient discomfort from the delivery device, and the higher cost involved compared with traditional pharmaceutical formulations (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 200 9; Brannon-Peppas, 1997). Several polymers, including both natural and synthetic polymers have been investigated for formulating biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles. These include polylactide (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), which are biodegradable and biocompatible. Among these polymers, PLGA is the most commonly used due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility as well as flexible degradation kinetics (Sahana et al., 2007). In fact, PLGA has been approved by FDA (Food and Drug Administration) for a number of clinical applications (Bhardwaj et al., 2005) such as synthetic resorbable sutures, surgical clips and other surgical implants (Kydonieus, 2005). 1.4.1 Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) as Polymers PLGA is a copolymer of PLA and PGA. It is synthesised by co-polymerisation of two different monomers, the cyclic dimmers of glycolic acid and lactic acid. During polymerisation, successive monomers of both glycolic and lactic acid are linked together by ester bonds, producing a linear polyester of PLGA. Different forms of PLGA can, thus, be yielded by altering the mixing ratio of lactide to glycolide used in the polymerisation process. A basic insight of physicochemical and biological properties of the PLGA polymer is vital as it allows the study of the mechanism and rate of drug release from the nanoshperes. PLGA degrades in vivo by hydrolytic cleavage of the ester linkage in the presence of water (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). However, the degradation process of polymers is affected by a number of factors. The polymer nature (polydispersity and copolymer composition), the degree of crystallinity, the glass transition temperature of the polymer, organic solvents, type and concentration of stabiliser used are all the common factors (Bala et al., 2004). The degradation profile of nanoparticulate systems, on the other hand, relies on the hydrophilicity of the polymer. The more hydrophilic the polymer, the higher its rate of degradation (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). In fact, the hydrophilicity of the polymer is determined by the crystalline to armorphous ratio, that is consecutively affected by the composition of the copolymer (Bala et al., 2004). Owing to the fact that lactide is more hydrophobic than glycolide, PLGA copolymers with high content of lactide units will be less hydrophilic, thus experiencing slower degradation process. For this reason, the rate of degradation and release profile of PLGA can be modified easily by varying the ratio of lactide to glycolide (Sahana et al., 2007). It is noted that PLGA copolymer with composition of 50:50 ratio shows the fastest degradability rate about 1-2 months in both in vitro and in vivo conditions (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009; Nair and Laurencin, 2007). Extensi ve investigations were then carried out on different forms of PLGA by changing the ratio of lactide to glycolide. The results showed that the PLGA copolymers of 65:35, 77:25, and 88:15 lactide/glycolide ratios have progressively longer in vivo degradation times, with the 88:15 one lasting about 5-6 months in vivo (Bala et al., 2004; Jain, 2000). During the preparation of PLGA loaded nanoparticles in this study, lactide-rich copolymers will be of great interest in order to formulate a nanosphere with controlled release properties. PLGA is undoubtedly the ideal choice of polymer selected to be used in designing a controlled release nanoparcticulate delivery system. Because of its biodegradability, no surgical procedures are needed to remove the system when the drugs are depleted. Besides, it is degraded in vivo, by random, nonenzymatic, hydrolytic cleavage of ester linkages to toxicologically safe by-products (the original monomers- lactic and glycolic acid) that are either excreted renally or elimininated as carbon dioxide gas and water via Krebs cycle (Bala et al., 2004; Galindo-Rodriguez et al., 2005). Furthermore, PLGA has a glass transition temperature above physiological temperature (45-55 °C) that provides it adequate strength to be formulated as a successful controlled drug delivery system (Bala et al., 2004). Because PLGA have proved to be biocompatible and to have extensive toxicological documentation, their approvals for use in fabricating nanospheres will be less costly and more straightforward th an approvals of new polymers for fabrication in the pharmaceutical industry. For this reason, PLGA copolymers are selected as the colloidal carrier for parenteral controlled-release dosage forms in this study. 1.4.2 Therapeutic Uses of PLGA Polymers in Contemporary Clinical Formulations The use of the PLGA polymer for the development of new parenteral controlled drug delivery dosage forms appears to be very promising. Nanospheres with various release patterns can be prepared by altering the polymer species, molecular weight or monomer mixing ratio. FDA has approved PLGA for a number of medical applications. For instance, Lupron Depot ®, a controlled release formulation for treatment of advanced prostate cancer, was the first PLGA product cleared by FDA (Bala et al., 2004). The effective dose this formulation, which contains leuprolide acetate encapsulated in biodegradable microspheres of 75:25 lactide/glycolide polymer, was reduced 1/4 – 1/8 of that required in the conventional drug formulation (Sahana et al., 2007). Another successful development of controlled drug delivery systems includes anticancer drug, Doxorubicin formulated into PLGA nanoparticles, that exhibited controlled release over 1 month (Bala et al., 2004). In the following research work, Ibu profen loaded PLGA nanoparticles are intended to be prepared with a view to possess the identical desired controlled release properties. 1.4.3 Preparation of PLGA loaded nanoparticles Several approaches have been proposed for the preparation of PLGA nanoparticles. However, the choice of preparation method well depends on the type of the polymer and drug used, the intended use as well as the duration of the treatment. The standard procedures of emulsion-diffusion evaporation, salting-out and nanoprecipitation method are all widely used to prepare PLGA particles in the nanosize range. The first step of these methods often involves emulsification of a solution of drug in a solution of organic polymer (Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). The dispersion formed is then processed in accordance with one of the aforestated methods. During both emulsion-diffusion evaporation and salting out approaches, the polymer PLGA is dissolved in an organic solvent such as chlorinated solvent, dichloromethane and chloroform, tetrahydrofuran, acetone or ethyl acetate. The mixed organic solution of both polymer and drug is later mixed with an aqueous solution containing both stabiliser and emulsifying agents. The emulsion formed is then exposed to a high-energy source for example an ultrasonic device, homogenizer or colloid mill to form a stable oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion. The organic solvent is later evaporated under reduced pressure or continuous stirring, resulting in the formation of fine dispersion of nanoparticles containing therapeutic drugs. Factors such as homogeniser stirring rate, concentration of polymer, presence of surfactants and stabilisers will influence the size of the particles formed (Bala et al., 2004; Stevanovic and Uskokovic, 2009). Therefore, it is important to standardise these parameters in order to produce particles of desired size range. The nanoprecipitation method, on the other hand, is based on the interfacial deposition of a polymer following displacement of a semi-polar solvent miscible with water from a lipophilic solution (Bala et al., 2004; Govender et al., 1999). The PLGA polymer and drug are then dissolved in a semi-polar water-miscible solvent, either acetonitrile or ethanol, forming the organic phase. The organic phase is then mixed with an aqueous solution containing stabiliser and stirred magnetically at room temperature to allow rapid solvent evaporation. The nanoparticles are finally purified using ultracentrifugation, ultrafiltration, gas chromatography, dialysis procedures to remove stabiliser residues or any free drug. This purification process must be carefully carried out to avoid any loss of biologically active ingredients. 1.5 Aims and Objectives Realising the benefits and importance of controlled drug release in clinical applications, the objective of the present study is to prepare and characterise Ibuprofen loaded PLGA nanoparticles for parenteral delivery, with a view to prolong the ibuprofen blood residence time after injection. The objective will be achieved by the following specific aims: 1. Preparation of Ibuprofen loaded PLGA nanoparticles. 2. Characterization of the nanoparticles for size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. References Aranda JV, Thomas R, 2006. Systemic review: Intravenous Ibuprofen in preterm newborns. Elsevier: Seminar in Perinatology. Bala I, Hariharan S, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2004. PLGA nanoparticles in drug delivery: The State of the Art: Critical Review in Therapeutic Drug Carrier Systems. 21(5), 387-422. Bhardwaj V, Hariharan S, Bala I, Lamprecht A, Kumar N, Panchagnula R, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2005. Pharmaceutical aspects of polymeric nanoparticles for oral delivery. Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology. 1, 1-23. Bhushan B, editor, 2004. Springer handbook of nanotechnology. New York: Springer. Brannon-Peppas L, Blanchette JO, 2004. Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 56, 1649-1659. Brannon-Peppas L, 1997. Polymers in controlled drug delivery. Medical Plastics and Biomaterials Magazine. Davis SS, Illum L, 1998. Drug delivery systems for challenging molecules. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 176, 1–8. Fernandez-Carballido A, Herrero-Vanrell R, Molina-Martinez IT, Pastoriza P, 2004. Biodegradable ibuprofen-loaded PLGA microspheres for intraarticular administration. Effect of Labrafil addition on release in vitro. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 279, 33-41. Govender T, Stolnik S, Garnett MC, Illum L, Davis SS, 1999. PLGA nanoparticles prepared by nanoprecipitation: drug loading and release studies of a water soluble drug. Journal of Control Release 1999. 57, 171–185. Hans ML, Lowman AM, 2002. Biodegradable nanoparticles for drug delivery and targeting. Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science. 6, 319-327. Hassan AS, Sapin A, Lamprecht A, Emond E, Ghazouani FE, Maincent P, 2009. Research paper: Composite microparticles with in vivo reduction of the burst release effect. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. Jain RA, 2000. The manufacturing techniques of various drug loaded biodegradable poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) devices. Biomaterials. 21, 2475–2490. Jiang BB, Hu L, Gao CY, Shen JC, 2005. Ibuprofen-loaded nanoparticles prepared by a co-precipitation method and their release properties. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 304, 220-230. Khang G, ChanYang J, TaeKo J, SooPark J, SukKim M, Rhee JM, BangLee H, 2007. Preparation and characterisation of ibuprofen using self-emulsifying drug delivery system in vivo. Key Engineering Materials. 342-343, 541-544. Kydonieus A, editor, 1992. Treatise on controlled drug delivery. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Leo E, Forni F, Bernabei MT, 2000. Surface drug removal from ibuprofen-loaded PLA microspheres. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 196, 1–9. Nair LS, Laurencin CT, 2007. Biodegradable polymer as biomaterials. Progress in Polymer Science. 32, 762-798. Panyam J, Labhasetwar V, 2003. Biodegradable nanoparticles for drug and gene delivery to cells and tissue. Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews. 55, 329–347. Sahana DK, Mittal G, Bhardwaj V, Ravi Kumar MNV, 2007. PLGA nanoparticles for oral delivery of hydrophobic drugs: Influence of organise solvent on nanoparticles formation and release behaviour in vitro and in vivo using Estradiol as a model drug. Wiley InterScience. Socha M, Hasan AS, Lamprecht A, Ghazouani FE, Sapin A, Hoffman M, Maincent P, Ubrich N, 2007. Effect of the microencapsulation of nanoparticles on the reduction of burst release. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 344, 53–61. Stevanovic M, Uskokovic D, 2009. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide)-based Micro and Nanoparticles for the Controlled Drug Delivery of Vitamins. Current Nanoscience. 5, 00-00. Thassu D, Deleers M, Pathak Y, editors, 2007. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems. Vol 166. New York: Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences. Uhrich KE, Cannizzaro SM, Langer RS, Shakesheff KM, 1999. Polymeric systems for controlled drug release. Chemical Reviews. 99, 3181-3198.

The Development Context Essay -- Politics Political Economics Essays

The Development Context This study falls at the intersection of several key themes or debates in International Development. These include the debate about the role and effectiveness of official international assistance agencies, the body of thought on the micropolitical forces which shape the development assistance process, and the debate over the ecological limits to and sustainabiltiy of economic growth. The following sections will review the most important concepts and some of the authors associated with those themes. 1) What do international donor agencies do, and do they do it well? Some discussion has been given in the literature to approach taken by international donor agencies to development assistance. For the most part, this discussion has focused on the fact that large governmental and bureaucratic agencies lack the flexibility to adapt to changing conditions and be effective at grassroots-level implementation. In a scathing condemnation of official international development assistance, Korten (1990) asserts that such efforts are defined by the bounds of bureaucratic convenience, and that there has been a strong preference in international assistance for short-term, narrowly-focused, and self-interested efforts.' Hellinger et al. (1988), in an assessment of the U.S. Agency for International Development, suggest that even when more farsighted and well-designed approaches emerge, they "face internal structures, operational procedures, and reward systems geared to promote objectives related primarily to expansionary ' David C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Century, West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press, 1990, pp. 36-137. and survival interests of the AID bureaucracyi' In the context of this criticism and dom... ...r: Lynne Rienner. 1988. Hirschmann, David. "Women and Political Participation in Africa". Public Domain. 1990. Kasfir, Nelson. "Explaining Ethnic Political Participation". (in State of Development in the Third World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. 1986.) Kolenda, Pauline. Caste in Contemporary India: Beyond Organic Solidarity. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press. 1985. Korten, David C. Getting to the 21st Century. West Hartford, CT: Kumarian Press. 1990. Lipsky, Michael. "The Rationing of Services in Street-Level Bureaucracies". Street-Level Bureaucracy. New York: Sage Foundation. 1980. Meadows, Donella et al. Beyond the Limits. Post Mills, VT: Chelsea Green. 1992. Robertson, C. and I. Berger. Women and Class in Africa. New York: Holmes & Meier. 1986. Ibid, p. 24. Samarasinghe, Vidya. "Hangin' in at the Margin". Public Domain. 1992.

The Merchant Of Venice :: Free Merchant of Venice Essays

The Merchant Of Venice Act 1 In the fist act, Antonio is introduced as the Merchant of Venice. A friend of him, Bassanio, desperately needs money because all of his money is on his ships and he wants to go to Belmont to visit the woman of his dreams, Portia. Therefore he goes to Antonio to ask if he is willing to go to Shylock and ask him if he can have 3000 ducats. Antonio agrees and goes to Shylock and explains that he has to pay it back within 3 months. If he doesn't do this, he may cut one pound of his fair flesh... Act 2 In Belmont, the casket bond proceeds: with two already rejected, news comes that Bassanio is at Portia's gate. Meanwhile, Shylock is left bewailing the loss of his ducats and his daughter that has run away with Lorenzo and the treasure. Shylock doesn't like this at all because he really doens't like the Christians and Lorenzo is a Christian Act 3 Jessica is now together with Lorenzo. She is a Jew and he's a Christian. Jessica is embarrassed to be a Jew is planning to change religion for Lorenzo. Shylock is still looking for them and is very mad when he finds out that she has sold a ring, that was given to Shylock by his wife, for a monkey. Meanwhile Bassanio is picking one of the caskets and takes the correct one; the leaden casket. He may now marry Portia. Because Antonio hasn't paid back the 3000 ducats he had lend from Shylock, Shylock may have one pound of his fair flesh. Shylock takes it to court... Act 4 Still in the court of law, Portia and Nerissa have disguised themselves as doctor and clerk. Shylock wants his revenge on the Christians because they treat him like a dog and spit on him. He wants his bond and the one pound of the flesh of Antonio. Portia very smartly knows how to trick him by saying that it doesn't say in the bond that any blood can be spilt and that he has to take exactly one pound of the flesh. No more and no less. Shylock has to give up because he can't deny this. Antonio is safe! Bassanio has given the ring that he had got from Portia to the doctor and Gratiano has given the ring that he had got from Nerissa to the clerk... They had said to their women that they would never give the rings away.