Effects of technology Essay

Technology is the specific scope of idea in which it reflects the overall application of knowledge towards the development of society (Bilton, 2007). In this aspect, greater improvements in the people’s way of life are the considerations involved in order to measure the effect of technology. Today, computers are among the most influential products of technology that have already changed the way people do their tasks. To evaluate the scale of such change, the realization that almost everything on this planet runs with the help of computers is a good aspect to consider. The most essential goal in fabricating computers was to help in the data process techniques to simplify the task of using them for everyday life. Since its inception in the middle of the 20th century, the social structures of the world population has already changed. The integration of computers to almost every type of tasks has made it much easier for people to complete responsibilities that would otherwise require enormous effort and time resources. An example on how computers have changed the society may be seen in the aspect of communications. Previously, the terms like internet, chat and video conferencing have no meaning. However, today’s computer technology has provided the essential convenience of communicating with another person from across any parts of the globe. A simple click on a web browser and sending an electronic letter is very much possible. It has provided greater channels for communications in a way that ease of use is not compromised. One more feature of computers, which modified the way society does things, is their capability of integrating with almost any other pre-existing devices. Today, television sets, cameras, bank machines, grocery scanners and vehicles are using devices that were primarily fabricated with the use of computers. Because of its capability to run tests for data management, it has been very easy for product manufacturers to see opportunities for technical improvements. Computers are now considered the basic platform that enables newer devices to run. Integrated circuits in all electronic devices are utilizing he same scope of computer based technology (Wikipedia, 2007). Lastly, computers are becoming the â€Å"multiplier† devices in which other patterned ideas will be introduced. Because of the scale of presence computers has in today’s society, a simple modification procedure to improve a product or service can cause greater developments for other segments of the public. Just like what happened in the business sector wherein almost all financial transactions are now done electronically. From a simple idea of using computers as a mean to collect money figures, it has developed into aspects no one has ever imagined before; internet banking, fund transfer-monitoring, calculations of stocks and online purchasing are no all possible with computer technology. Realizing the effect of technology in the lives of the people permits the society to consider developing more opportunities. With the significant social changes brought about by computer technology, people have been equipped to face the challenges of the future.

Project Report

A Summer Project Report on â€Å"Create Awareness about Whirlpool Brand of Accessories and Purifier in the Market and Design a plan to make them a household usage item† Towards partial fulfillment of Master of Business Administration (MBA) (affiliated to U. P. Technical University, Lucknow) Submitted To:- Submitted By: Mrs. Smriti Srivastava Ashok Kumar Gupta Lecturer MBA IIIrd Semester NIEC, Lucknow 2007-2009 PREFACE Perception of consumer regarding promotional tools of any company entirely depends upon awareness of individuals. Besides these, the availability of right tools to the right consumer at the right place with the right communication are need of the hour. It is the needless to say that the planning, selling and serving he consumer play an important role in the respect. Chance in promotional tools, product line, quality, shape, size and design price channel of distribution etc. are made on the basis of information and choice picked up from the market through constant and incessant research. In order to take decision market would constantly be monitored to have needful information for necessary feed back in the rend of the market. As such the marketing research would be an effective tool of measuring the consumer aspiration and perception. Not only thi, it would also provide a link between then corporate environment and marketing organization. The timely marketing research, thus may be viewed as in evitable tool used an aid to tackle the ensuring tiny and tall problems in marketing . I am sanguine , the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd, in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. (Ashok Kumar Gupta) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Really, it is a matter of profound to me to have an opportunity to undergoes summer training at WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. In Lucknow. Undoubtedly, it is also of paramount important to thank Mr. Talha Ismile ( Marketing manager), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow who extended his kind cooperation by giving guideline and tips about how to survey the market. I would like to give my special thanks to Mrs. Smriti Srivastava (Lecturer, Dept. of Business Administration, NIEC, Lucknow) he offered time and vital encouragement when I needed it most in Lucknow. The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work would always remain incomplete unless we mention the valuable cooperation and assistance of those people, who as an expression of gratitude, constant guidance and encouragement , served as a beacon- lit and crown our efforts with success. IO am sanguine, the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I started my training with ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow where I thoroughly studied the current create an awareness about whirlpool brand of accessories and purifier in the market and design a plan to make them a household usage item. In order to complete my research. I look a Lucknow district where I take survey and display all whirlpool Accessories and New Launch R. O. Based System Water Purifier into the prime location. I received some positive response from the customers as customer has shown a very keen interest in Accessories and also in R. O. Based System Water Purifier. I found out that most of the customer where not aware about Whirlpool Accessories and R. O. Based System Water Purifier. My research report contains company profile analysis finding, conclusion recommendation etc. I conclude that most of the people were not aware, hence proper advertisement should be taken to promote the Whirlpool Accessories. TABLE OF CONTENT ? PROBLEM DEFINITION ? OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ? COMPANY PROFILE ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ? DATA ANALYSIS ? FINDING ? SUGGESTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS LIMITATIONS ? SWOT ANALYSIS ? CONCLUSION ? ANNEXURE ? BIBLIOGRAPHY PROBLEM DEFINITION In Whirlpool studying about methods for marketing of water purifier and accessories with respect to its competitors The first motive of the company is to aware about the impurities of water and TDS level which is most probably unknown by the people and tell the difference between RO (Reverse Osmosis) and UV (Ultra Violet) And which system is useful for the consumer it d epends upon the TDS level of the water and minerals and impurity found in the water at present Indian Government recommended the TDS level of water for Human consumption is 120-140 and if it is near about 150 to 170 there is no need for RO water purifier. But if it is more than 180 then it is strongly recommended that RO technology can reduce the TDS level of water there is no use of UV technology In accessories Whirlpool introduces a wide range for products which is very useful for Home Appliances. Most of the cases it is seemed that appliance can not give 100% satisfaction to its users due to the carelessness or not giving right advice to users. People use costly appliance but not uses the recommended thing with product. Which should be harmful for appliance and this cause to be a big fault. In accessories there are so many products which increase the efficiency of appliances and increase its life with very minimum cost. And there are so many products which can be use in twice way i. e. refrigerator and microwave oven the products are cilico tray and neat and fresh kit. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The Research Objective is to prepare a model which will give the maximum leverage to marketing to its product and establish Whirlpool as a Market leader in both segments. To fulfill the objective of Research When Whirlpool launched this series of Water Purifier and Accessories the advertisement was done by company at television and make a display of the water purifier units at every place where dealers have whirlpool products. And when the technician goes for installation of the machinery or repair it he display the same. It is also the study of competitors who are selling Water Purifier and accessories and what method and marketing strategy they are using to selling their products. By studying that we can get the method which is useful for selling the whirlpool products. So the first thing is to get the information about other companies who are selling the accessories and water purifiers. For that purpose we met the marketing executives and service engineers of other companies like IFB, LG and SAMSUNG. So their preference is to give maximum quality and proper services to its consumers after sale. SOME MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1. To study the current market of Lucknow . 2. To study the awareness level of customer about the WHIRLPOOL accessories and water Purifier. 3. To suggest how can sell of water purifier increase in market. COMPANY PROFILE Project Report A Summer Project Report on â€Å"Create Awareness about Whirlpool Brand of Accessories and Purifier in the Market and Design a plan to make them a household usage item† Towards partial fulfillment of Master of Business Administration (MBA) (affiliated to U. P. Technical University, Lucknow) Submitted To:- Submitted By: Mrs. Smriti Srivastava Ashok Kumar Gupta Lecturer MBA IIIrd Semester NIEC, Lucknow 2007-2009 PREFACE Perception of consumer regarding promotional tools of any company entirely depends upon awareness of individuals. Besides these, the availability of right tools to the right consumer at the right place with the right communication are need of the hour. It is the needless to say that the planning, selling and serving he consumer play an important role in the respect. Chance in promotional tools, product line, quality, shape, size and design price channel of distribution etc. are made on the basis of information and choice picked up from the market through constant and incessant research. In order to take decision market would constantly be monitored to have needful information for necessary feed back in the rend of the market. As such the marketing research would be an effective tool of measuring the consumer aspiration and perception. Not only thi, it would also provide a link between then corporate environment and marketing organization. The timely marketing research, thus may be viewed as in evitable tool used an aid to tackle the ensuring tiny and tall problems in marketing . I am sanguine , the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd, in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. (Ashok Kumar Gupta) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Really, it is a matter of profound to me to have an opportunity to undergoes summer training at WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. In Lucknow. Undoubtedly, it is also of paramount important to thank Mr. Talha Ismile ( Marketing manager), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow who extended his kind cooperation by giving guideline and tips about how to survey the market. I would like to give my special thanks to Mrs. Smriti Srivastava (Lecturer, Dept. of Business Administration, NIEC, Lucknow) he offered time and vital encouragement when I needed it most in Lucknow. The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work would always remain incomplete unless we mention the valuable cooperation and assistance of those people, who as an expression of gratitude, constant guidance and encouragement , served as a beacon- lit and crown our efforts with success. IO am sanguine, the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I started my training with ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow where I thoroughly studied the current create an awareness about whirlpool brand of accessories and purifier in the market and design a plan to make them a household usage item. In order to complete my research. I look a Lucknow district where I take survey and display all whirlpool Accessories and New Launch R. O. Based System Water Purifier into the prime location. I received some positive response from the customers as customer has shown a very keen interest in Accessories and also in R. O. Based System Water Purifier. I found out that most of the customer where not aware about Whirlpool Accessories and R. O. Based System Water Purifier. My research report contains company profile analysis finding, conclusion recommendation etc. I conclude that most of the people were not aware, hence proper advertisement should be taken to promote the Whirlpool Accessories. TABLE OF CONTENT ? PROBLEM DEFINITION ? OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ? COMPANY PROFILE ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ? DATA ANALYSIS ? FINDING ? SUGGESTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS LIMITATIONS ? SWOT ANALYSIS ? CONCLUSION ? ANNEXURE ? BIBLIOGRAPHY PROBLEM DEFINITION In Whirlpool studying about methods for marketing of water purifier and accessories with respect to its competitors The first motive of the company is to aware about the impurities of water and TDS level which is most probably unknown by the people and tell the difference between RO (Reverse Osmosis) and UV (Ultra Violet) And which system is useful for the consumer it d epends upon the TDS level of the water and minerals and impurity found in the water at present Indian Government recommended the TDS level of water for Human consumption is 120-140 and if it is near about 150 to 170 there is no need for RO water purifier. But if it is more than 180 then it is strongly recommended that RO technology can reduce the TDS level of water there is no use of UV technology In accessories Whirlpool introduces a wide range for products which is very useful for Home Appliances. Most of the cases it is seemed that appliance can not give 100% satisfaction to its users due to the carelessness or not giving right advice to users. People use costly appliance but not uses the recommended thing with product. Which should be harmful for appliance and this cause to be a big fault. In accessories there are so many products which increase the efficiency of appliances and increase its life with very minimum cost. And there are so many products which can be use in twice way i. e. refrigerator and microwave oven the products are cilico tray and neat and fresh kit. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The Research Objective is to prepare a model which will give the maximum leverage to marketing to its product and establish Whirlpool as a Market leader in both segments. To fulfill the objective of Research When Whirlpool launched this series of Water Purifier and Accessories the advertisement was done by company at television and make a display of the water purifier units at every place where dealers have whirlpool products. And when the technician goes for installation of the machinery or repair it he display the same. It is also the study of competitors who are selling Water Purifier and accessories and what method and marketing strategy they are using to selling their products. By studying that we can get the method which is useful for selling the whirlpool products. So the first thing is to get the information about other companies who are selling the accessories and water purifiers. For that purpose we met the marketing executives and service engineers of other companies like IFB, LG and SAMSUNG. So their preference is to give maximum quality and proper services to its consumers after sale. SOME MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1. To study the current market of Lucknow . 2. To study the awareness level of customer about the WHIRLPOOL accessories and water Purifier. 3. To suggest how can sell of water purifier increase in market. COMPANY PROFILE Project Report A Summer Project Report on â€Å"Create Awareness about Whirlpool Brand of Accessories and Purifier in the Market and Design a plan to make them a household usage item† Towards partial fulfillment of Master of Business Administration (MBA) (affiliated to U. P. Technical University, Lucknow) Submitted To:- Submitted By: Mrs. Smriti Srivastava Ashok Kumar Gupta Lecturer MBA IIIrd Semester NIEC, Lucknow 2007-2009 PREFACE Perception of consumer regarding promotional tools of any company entirely depends upon awareness of individuals. Besides these, the availability of right tools to the right consumer at the right place with the right communication are need of the hour. It is the needless to say that the planning, selling and serving he consumer play an important role in the respect. Chance in promotional tools, product line, quality, shape, size and design price channel of distribution etc. are made on the basis of information and choice picked up from the market through constant and incessant research. In order to take decision market would constantly be monitored to have needful information for necessary feed back in the rend of the market. As such the marketing research would be an effective tool of measuring the consumer aspiration and perception. Not only thi, it would also provide a link between then corporate environment and marketing organization. The timely marketing research, thus may be viewed as in evitable tool used an aid to tackle the ensuring tiny and tall problems in marketing . I am sanguine , the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd, in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. (Ashok Kumar Gupta) ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Really, it is a matter of profound to me to have an opportunity to undergoes summer training at WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. In Lucknow. Undoubtedly, it is also of paramount important to thank Mr. Talha Ismile ( Marketing manager), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow who extended his kind cooperation by giving guideline and tips about how to survey the market. I would like to give my special thanks to Mrs. Smriti Srivastava (Lecturer, Dept. of Business Administration, NIEC, Lucknow) he offered time and vital encouragement when I needed it most in Lucknow. The satisfaction and euphoria that accompany the successful completion of any work would always remain incomplete unless we mention the valuable cooperation and assistance of those people, who as an expression of gratitude, constant guidance and encouragement , served as a beacon- lit and crown our efforts with success. IO am sanguine, the finding of the survey would be of immense importance and value for the ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow in formulating their marketing strategies and policies. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY I started my training with ), WHIRLPOOL India Pvt. Ltd. , Lucknow where I thoroughly studied the current create an awareness about whirlpool brand of accessories and purifier in the market and design a plan to make them a household usage item. In order to complete my research. I look a Lucknow district where I take survey and display all whirlpool Accessories and New Launch R. O. Based System Water Purifier into the prime location. I received some positive response from the customers as customer has shown a very keen interest in Accessories and also in R. O. Based System Water Purifier. I found out that most of the customer where not aware about Whirlpool Accessories and R. O. Based System Water Purifier. My research report contains company profile analysis finding, conclusion recommendation etc. I conclude that most of the people were not aware, hence proper advertisement should be taken to promote the Whirlpool Accessories. TABLE OF CONTENT ? PROBLEM DEFINITION ? OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY ? COMPANY PROFILE ? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ? DATA ANALYSIS ? FINDING ? SUGGESTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS LIMITATIONS ? SWOT ANALYSIS ? CONCLUSION ? ANNEXURE ? BIBLIOGRAPHY PROBLEM DEFINITION In Whirlpool studying about methods for marketing of water purifier and accessories with respect to its competitors The first motive of the company is to aware about the impurities of water and TDS level which is most probably unknown by the people and tell the difference between RO (Reverse Osmosis) and UV (Ultra Violet) And which system is useful for the consumer it d epends upon the TDS level of the water and minerals and impurity found in the water at present Indian Government recommended the TDS level of water for Human consumption is 120-140 and if it is near about 150 to 170 there is no need for RO water purifier. But if it is more than 180 then it is strongly recommended that RO technology can reduce the TDS level of water there is no use of UV technology In accessories Whirlpool introduces a wide range for products which is very useful for Home Appliances. Most of the cases it is seemed that appliance can not give 100% satisfaction to its users due to the carelessness or not giving right advice to users. People use costly appliance but not uses the recommended thing with product. Which should be harmful for appliance and this cause to be a big fault. In accessories there are so many products which increase the efficiency of appliances and increase its life with very minimum cost. And there are so many products which can be use in twice way i. e. refrigerator and microwave oven the products are cilico tray and neat and fresh kit. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE The Research Objective is to prepare a model which will give the maximum leverage to marketing to its product and establish Whirlpool as a Market leader in both segments. To fulfill the objective of Research When Whirlpool launched this series of Water Purifier and Accessories the advertisement was done by company at television and make a display of the water purifier units at every place where dealers have whirlpool products. And when the technician goes for installation of the machinery or repair it he display the same. It is also the study of competitors who are selling Water Purifier and accessories and what method and marketing strategy they are using to selling their products. By studying that we can get the method which is useful for selling the whirlpool products. So the first thing is to get the information about other companies who are selling the accessories and water purifiers. For that purpose we met the marketing executives and service engineers of other companies like IFB, LG and SAMSUNG. So their preference is to give maximum quality and proper services to its consumers after sale. SOME MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF STUDY 1. To study the current market of Lucknow . 2. To study the awareness level of customer about the WHIRLPOOL accessories and water Purifier. 3. To suggest how can sell of water purifier increase in market. COMPANY PROFILE

Automobile and Cars Essay

The official definition of an automobile is â€Å"a passenger vehicle designed for operation on ordinary roads and typically having four wheels and a gasoline or diesel internal-combustion engine† (Merriam-Webster 51). There is no one person accredited for the invention of the automobile, but rather a collection of advancements that evolved into the modern-day automobile (Smith 12). Today, there are approximately 600 million passenger vehicles in existence worldwide, with numbers rapidly increasing in emerging economic â€Å"power countries†, such as China and India (Smith 23). A Flemish man named Ferdinand Verbiest introduced the first design for a self-propelled vehicle in 1672, in China, nearly one hundred years before the first internal combustion engine (Smith 25). From the late seventeenth century to the early nineteenth century, a series of vehicles, all propelled by steam, were constructed and demonstrated worldwide (Smith 34). The steam car was a superior machine in the nineteen hundreds (Smith 34). Steam cars were responsible for everyday travel, commercial transportation and even held land speed records (Smith36). It wasn’t until 1807 that the world’s first internal combustion engine was created, in France, by Nicephore Niepce (Smith 36). Another leader in the creation of the internal combustion engine was Francois Issac de Rivaz, who revolutionized the fuel that the engines ran on (Smith 36). Early automobiles powered by internal combustion engine ran on fuel made of powered and coal mixed with oil or a mixture of elements, such as hydrogen and oxygen (Smith 36). In 1824, and Englishman named Samuel Brown adapted the steam engine to burn gasoline and created the first gas vacuum engine (Smith 38). Sir Dougald Clerk, of Scotland, was accredited in 1876 for designing the first successful two-stroke engine (Smith39). In 1890, Wilhelm Mayback created the first four-cylinder, four-stroke engine (Smith39). Everything changed in 1885, when vehicle engineering took a sharp turn towards the future in regards to efficiency and affordability, thanks to the German inventor, Karl Benz (Smith 49). As the market for economical automobiles in the late nineteenth century began to grow, the need for industrial production was pressing. Benz patented the first four-stroke engine to be placed in his company’s production automobiles in 1888 (Smith 50). The first large-scale assembly production lines appeared in the early 1900s, many of which are still around today (Smith 24). Oldsmobile and Ford were two of the first companies to successfully mass-produce vehicles to meet the vast automotive market needs. American entrepreneur, Henry Ford, invented and improved the assembly line and installed the first conveyor belt system in his automobile manufacturing plant, based in Detroit, Michigan (Smith 95). Assembly lines reduced production costs by training workers to become experts with one specific part of the automobile or machinery, thus reducing production costs (Smith 97). Ford introduced the Model T in 1908, which could be assembled in an unprecedented ninety-three minutes. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, governments began to create and enforce automobile safety and environmental regulations (Smith 103). The World Forum for Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations is a working party of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), the goal of this organization is to facilitate international trade by creating a uniform model of regulations for vehicle design (Corbett 67). The UNECE is also responsible for creating and enforcing regulations on vehicle safety among automotive manufacturers (Corbett 69). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than one million people are injured or fatally wounded on the world’s roads annually (Corbett 70). Some examples of vehicle regulations include seat belts, air bags and laminated windshields (Corbett 71). Seat belts limit the forward motion of the driver or passengers and absorb kinetic energy by stretching to retain movement if an accident occurs (Corbett 71). Air bags inflate to cushion to cushion the impact of the vehicle occupants and are placed in various locations in the vehicle’s interior, such as steering wheels, dash and doors (Corbett 71). Laminated windshields are designed to remain in one piece when impacted to prevent shattering, while maintaining visual clarity just after an accident has occurred, allowing the driver to safely redirect themselves from harm’s way (Corbett 71). There are also regulations for vehicle’ side windows and back windshield (Corbett 72). Windows and rear wind shields must be manufactured with tempered glass, which breaks into granules with minimally sharp edges, rather than splitting into jagged fragments as ordinary glass does (Corbett 72). Many new luxury features, such as paint color choices, differences in interior and upgraded designs and environmental features much as electric or hybrid engines in the twentieth century emerged on the market (Anderson and Anderson 167). The modern day automobile is a vehicle of evolutionary change and has transformed exponentially over the last several centuries. Today, the leading manufacturers of automobiles are Toyota (Japan), General Motors (USA), Volkswagen (Germany) and Ford (USA) (Corbett 22). These leading manufacturers all embody features and characteristics that make their product and branding unique and memorable, as well as abiding by worldwide government standards which include regulations of vehicle safety, environmental protection, energy efficiency and theft resistance (Corbett 13-16, 18). The evolution of motor vehicles from the seventeenth century to present-day is astounding. It would be reasonable to argue that the automobile is the single most evolved piece of modern machinery of all time. Motor vehicle usage has evolved over time, beginning with use for personal leisure and developed for commercial transportation, public transit and racing. The transformation of production and assembly, as well as the addition of customizable features mark the individualistic ideals of the twenty-first century. There no doubt, motor vehicles will continue to evolve throughout time with environmental needs at the forefront worldwide and the ever-growing necessity of increasing luxury among automobile owners. Works Cited Anderson, Curtis Darrel, and Judy Anderson. Electric and Hybrid Cars: A History. Chicago: McFarland, 2010. Print. Corbett, David. A History of Cars. New York: Gareth Stevens Publishers, 2005. Print. Merriam-Webster, Inc. , . Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. 11th. New York: Merriam-Webster, Inc. , 2003. Print. Smith, Kaelyn. A Brief History of Automobiles. New York: Webster’s Digital Services, 2011. Print.

The role of surgery and methotrexate in treating ectopic pregnancy Research Paper

The role of surgery and methotrexate in treating ectopic pregnancy - Research Paper Example ide from being the leading causes of maternal deaths, roughly 30% of women who had an ectopic pregnancy could experience difficulty getting pregnant (Sember 2007) whereas 40% of women who had ectopic pregnancy will lose their capacity to conceive again (Chow et al. 1987). To give the readers a better idea about the research topic, this report will first provide information regarding the epidemiology of ectopic pregnancy, definition of medical terms, types of ectopic pregnancy, and aims and objective of the study. Women who happened to experience going through the process of ectopic pregnancy are not only concerned about the high cost of treatments and their future fertility. For this reason, this report will focus on discussing the cost effectiveness and the impact of two surgical procedures (laparoscopy and laparotomy) and Methotrexate on women’s future fertility. Because of higher incidence of risk factors and lower incidence of protective factors, Chow et al. (1987) revealed that there is an increasing trend of ectopic pregnancy has been noted in different parts of the world including the United States over the last two decades. Specifically in Australia, the incidence wherein a woman can experience ectopic pregnancy is around 16.2 per 1,000 births (Boufous et al. 2001). Since ectopic pregnancies could lead to mortality, immediate medical interventions such as surgical procedures like laparoscopy and laparotomy including pharmacological intervention using Methotrexate is necessary to save the lives of expecting mothers. In line with this, laparoscopy, ultrasound procedures, and assay for human chorionic gonadotropin can be use in detecting early stages of ectopic pregnancy (Kurjak and Arenas, 2005, pp. 273 – 280; Chow et al. 1987). Although laparoscopy can be used in detecting ectopic pregnancy at an early stage, the use of this type of surgical method is not a requirement since ectopic pregnancy can be diagnosed with transvaginal scan combined with

Mutation of DNA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Mutation of DNA - Essay Example Transversion mutation involves the substitution of purine by pyrimidine and pyrimidine by purine. This type of mutation is rare due to steric problems of pairing purines with purines, and pyrimidine with pyrimidines. This type of mutation takes place due to chemical modification in a base. The chemical modification is caused due to two reactions one is deamination and second is depurination. In deamination Cytosine occasionally loose an amino group and then it is converted to Uracil. This resulted in pairing of Uracil-Guanin instead of Cytosine-Guanin. It is well known that Uracil pairs with Adenin. After Uracil-Adenin pair in first round of replication, thymine takes the place of Uracil in second round of replication. And finally Cytosine - Guanin pair is converted to Adenin - thymine Pair. In depurination loss of purine group (Adenine or Guanin) takes place. Due to deletion and insertion of one or a few nucleotides in DNA molecule, the shifting of reading frame of nucleotide takes place either in backward or in forward position, this results into a mutation. This is known as frameshift mutation. Generally this mutation occurs where there is a short repeated nucleotide sequence. Any agent that directly cause damage to the DNA alters the base sequence or interferes with repairing system is known as mutagens. Mutagens may be some chemical or radiation. Here we are discussing how the mutagen can act: 1) Base Analogues: A base analogue is a chemical compound similar to the one or four bases of DNA. During normal replication process this base analogue can be incorporated into growing polynucleotide chain. For Example 5-Bromouracil (5-BU) is an analogue of thymine. It can pair with adenine in polynucleotide chain by replacing thymine. During the replication keto-form of 5-BU Substitutes for thymine and the replication of an initial Adenin:Thymine (A:T) pair becomes an A:BU pair. The rare enol form of 5-BU that pairs with Guanin is the first mutagenic round of replication. In the next round of replication Guanin pairs with cytosine. So that transition is completed from A:T to G:C pair. 2) Chemical Changing the Specificity of Hydrogen Bonding. There are many chemicals that after incorporation in DNA change the specificity of hydrogen bonding. For example Nitrous Oxide (HNO2) converts the amino group of the bases into keto group through oxidative deamination. Deamination of adenine results in formation of hypoxanthine, the pairing behavior of which is like guanine. Hence it pairs with cytosin

Unilever and Nestle are facing political and economic challenges in Essay

Unilever and Nestle are facing political and economic challenges in middle eastern and north African countries - Essay Example Financial productivity is the main aim of every financial establishment. For the past several decades, Unilever and Nestle companies have operated on good financial bases. On average, Nestle gets 28% of its finances from European markets, 44% of the revenues from the Americas and 28% from Africa, Oceania and Asia. Likewise, Unilever makes a large portion of its profits from Europe and the United States of America (Nestle 2006, 12). There is relatively low revenue collected by both companies in the Middle East and North African countries. These parts of the world are particularly unproductive for Unilever and Nestle given the political instability in the regions. Governance of countries in the Middle East and North Africa do not encourage Foreign Direct Investment given unpredictable economic policies (Unilever 2013, 32). Given the instability of political environment in North Africa and Middle East, economic situation of the populations around the regions curtails the purchasing power of the inhabitants. A complete essay of this paper will answer the question: How do Unilever and Nestle face political and economic challenges in Middle Eastern and North African countries? It places a hypothesis that economic and political challenges in these regions have negative effects on investment of the two companies in the

Final assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Final - Assignment Example As the rate of globalization goes high in the United States, the developing countries also look forward to get them same effects of globalization. Thus, the United States of America has to play a major role in facilitating development in the third world countries. United States created two international institutions which aim at developing all the countries in the world. The two institutions are World Trade Organization (WTO) formed in 19951. The main function of the World Trade organization was to settle all the trade disputes among the countries in the world. The second organization is the International Monetary Fund (IMF) which was formed after World War II. The events of the war destroyed most of the countries’ resources, and something had to be done to revolve their economy. The International Monetary Fund provided emergency loans to countries. After the events of World War II, the United States of America plays a major role in shaping the economy of the world. Thus, to ensure that other countries develop, they have to incorporate all the aspects of globalization. They have to advance the living standards and ensure that there is stability in the world’s economy. The policy makers have to come up with policies that promote globalization in all the countries, which is a great challenge2. Consequently, some of the third world countries cannot adapt globalization because of factors such as illiteracy and poverty. The United States has first to work on the two major challenges before introducing globalization in those countries. Thus, they need resources to ensure that they provide all the basic needs required and improve their education sector. Finance is needed to carry out all these activities, making it a great challenge. Globalization has resulted in a faster exchange of ideas among the countries. Criminals use the advanced technology to communicate over a long

Hiring FBI Agents Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hiring FBI Agents - Essay Example This has been refined over the years that only the best of the candidate pool even makes it to a formal interview stage. The disadvantage to this process is that some excellent candidates may be looked over and denied an opportunity to advance within the FBI because of one test score that is just a few points off the mark. Such cut and dry approaches to determining the validity of candidates can backfire at times because it negates the human aspect of looking at other desirable qualities that might be present in excess and are just what the FBI is needing. Such a multiple hurdles approach to hiring would actually motivate to choose a career with the FBI, were I to be interested in that path. The special agent position is a coveted role within law enforcement (Bowman, Carlson, Colvin, & Green, 2006). It is an elite position that I would be proud to be a part of and it would be seen as a great life accomplishment were I to make it through the entire process and be hired by the FBI in this role. The complexity of the hiring process illustrates the seriousness by which the organization views the job. I would be lined up against the very best of the best, and this would serve to increase my level of motivation to pass each exam, ensure that my personal life was well rounded and possessed integrity, and work hard to eventually land the job. In the end, the FBI is not the only such law enforcement position that is coveted by such minded individuals today. As such, the process may be too long and drawn out to bring out the very best applicants in any giving hiring season. While the steps involved in the process do not necessarily need to change, the FBI might look at ways to sped up the process so individuals know much sooner where they stand in terms of the likelihood that they will actually be hired. This is important for many reasons. To begin, if the individual is in the middle of a long hiring

Reseach Paper proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Reseach Paper proposal - Essay Example Machine helps machine to figure and work machine unfathomably speedier, lessening the handling speed, value and time. This development innovation changes all human lives. I have quite a while encounter in Plastic infusion Mold making and Machining part industry. For me as experience engineer, CNC is an enchantment. It made unthinkable dreams to true plausibility. CNC it helps me to transform and cut the metal speedier, precise and lively than some time recently. Useful of expounding on this theme is helping me to get progress data about CNC innovation. Whats more the gigantic sources from Cal State University Library are opening an alternate eye and world for me to get more learning and data about the business that I included as my first occupation. Clearly, this Human made engineering has some Advantage and Disadvantages. Points of interest of this machine are, for example, quick correspondence, less demanding arranging framework, sparing vitality and time, information stockpiling information regardless of size and numerous different things. Impediments of the Computer are, for example, unemployment, information security and wellbeing. In General profit or harm of this creation is upon to their client is utilizing it. It can spare some person time, expense and life, or it may case someone misfortune or harm. Anyway dependably workstation engineering improved human life and lead people to a propelled level of

Segmentation Variables for the water market in the UK. Coca-Cola in UK Assignment

Segmentation Variables for the water market in the UK. Coca-Cola in UK - Assignment Example Dasani failed in the UK market because unlike most of the bottled water which were obtained from precious natural spring or alpine glaciers, Dasani was obtained through local tab water which the company put in the purification process and added mineral salt to it. Within just five weeks of its launched Dasani was withdrawn from the market resulting in financial loss, created a bad image in the minds of the customers reducing the brand value. Bottled water is the fastest growing product in the soft drink category and Coke needs a successful bottled water to capture the UK and European market (Garrett, 2004). Segmentation Variables for the water market in the UK The benefits of market segmentation are highly recognized by the marketing practitioners. With more advanced and sophisticated technology the consumers have become more sophisticated in their shopping behavior and so it becomes important for the marketers to consider the potential market segment and introduce the product. The p rinciple assumption lies on the fact the consumers are numerous and are varied in their product needs and requirements and are not satisfied by single offering, thus market segmentation is required to satisfy the different needs and demands of the customers. ... The UK soft drink sector has showed a growth rate in the year 2010 and is expected to grow in the future. The soft drink market registered an impressive 4.1% of growth along with 5.8% increase in the value and stood at 14585 million litters in 2010. UK soft drink sector is divided into five segments comprising of carbonates (44%), dilutables (24%), fruit juice (8%), bottled water (14%) and still and juice (10%) respectively. UK water markets are segmented into three types of water which includes natural mineral water comprising of 61%, spring water comprising of 28% and bottled drinking water which comprises of 11% (BSDA, 2011). Segments for bottled water UK soft drink sector consists of five different segments in which the bottled water compromises of 14% of the market share. Consumption of bottled water in UK was highest in 2006 where consumption amounted to 2240 million liters and in 2010 consumption of bottled water amounted to 2055 million liters. UK bottled water falls under th ree segments, still bottled water comprising of 72%, sparkling bottled water accounting for 14% and still water cooler comprising of 14% in the bottled market sector (BSDA, 2011). UK bottled water market continued to recover and grew by 0.7%in volume. With promotional activity along with few lucky breaks experienced in the weather kept the market share of bottled water rising. Segment targeted by Coke The target audience segmented by Coke was similar to the soft drinks, Diet Coke one of the most popular and famous product of Coke. The target customers were all those people who wanted to a product that would quench their thrust and at the same time is healthy. It can also be said that

Mau Mau Insurgence. Strategic Assessment of Mau Mau Research Paper

Mau Mau Insurgence. Strategic Assessment of Mau Mau - Research Paper Example Kenyans were reacting to the oppressive nature of British rule, and especially to the confining boundaries that British officials had drawn for them in the political, economic, and social spheres.† The Kikuyu tribes had begun to surface their voice back in 1924 when Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) was formed to voice public anger politically. Later on, it was KCA that provided the foundations to Kenya Land Freedom Army (KLFA) or simply known to be LFA. The British settlers were blamed to exploit the powers conferred upon them through imperial rule and land acquisition of more than 43,000 square feet land from Kikuyu peasants. Forced nationalization of live stock and breach of women rights were among the major phenomenon which historically have contributed towards the formation of LFA. John Maina Kahihu from the Mau Mau's political wing said in a post independence interview, "In 1942 we had fought for the British. But when we came home from the war they gave us nothing." (Slaughter, 1999). In the backdrop of this political trust deficit insurrection and insurgence are supposed to be natural phenomenon. Moreover, the freedom of subcontinent states from British colonial rule through a long stretched political struggle in 1948 had already set a precedent for Kenyans. In 1950 Kikuyu tribes Led by Dedan Kimathi, had begun to formulate in the forests of Nairobi to start an armed resistance to British Colonial Empire. The assassination of Senior Chief Waruhui in October 1952 further deteriorated the political efforts for a peaceful solution. Governor declared the state of emergency in the country which gave unlimited powers to British authorities to detain the insurgents and put off the rebellion. The Mau Mau gang was predominately composed of Kikuyu tribesmen who were known for their brutality. To be a part of Mau Mau gang tribesmen had to take an oath to testify that they will endeavor for the ouster of British settlers and colonial rule. The gangs begin to enlarge in early second half of the 20th century. The oath was not considered a free choice by Mau Mau gangs rather they used severe atrocities against their own tribesman who refused to favour their version of British ouster. Mau Mau gangs run door to door campaigns to gather as much power as possible to launch a barbarous insurgency against the colonial rule. Such a movement, especially in a colonial state could not be tolerated long and even a strict British response to this insurgency was solicited by the Colonial Secretary and Governor. The British government planned and executed a successful counter insurgency strategy to tackle the Mau Mau. The major stakeholders of this Kenyan insurgence include the Kikuyu tribes, Dedan Kimathi, the leader of Mau Mau, other Kenyans who joined Mau Mau, the British Colonial authorities in Kenya, British settlers and British Home Office. Kikuyu tribes were gauged to be one fifth of the Kenyan population. They were the major contributor to this insurgence because they had suffered a lot in the past and had only fewer things to lose in case of a fresh bloodshed. Kikuyu tribes were the occupant of the most fertilized land in Kenya which was later on taken over by the British settlers. The president of Kenya African Union, Jomo Kenyatta tried to mollify the

Evangelism Paper Essay Example for Free

Evangelism Paper Essay Over the last few months one has to mention an undeniable fact: the church of tomorrow must be reached different than the church of yesterday. Through readings, lectures, and field trips, it has become evident that something different must begin to take place if the church is going to be able to reach the present and future generations. We must become creative in our evangelism if we wish to reach this culture. It is essential to be up to date technologically and even socially. A pastor who falls behind in the social atmosphere around him will lose touch with his or her people. If we are to reach these people as individuals, the pastor cannot be expected to â€Å"do all the work.† â€Å"A clerical ministry will not penetrate this age, but the priesthood of all believers can† (Maddix). That is, we must teach the laity of the church to reach out spiritually and socially to their neighbors, friends, and especially each other. According to Bonhoeffer, the meaning of the statement â€Å"Christianity means community through Jesus Christ and in Jesus Christ. No Christian community is more or less than this†¦we belong to one another only through and in Jesus Christ† is threefold: â€Å"first, that a Christian needs others because of Jesus Christ†¦second, that a Christian comes to others only through Jesus Christ†¦third, that in Jesus Christ we have been chosen from eternity, accepted in time, and united for eternity† (21). The transformation of members into ministers will spark great growth within the church. In the midst of this, it is essential to remain biblical. The Scripture must always be taken seriously, never downplayed, in an effort to reach someone. We must recognize that we are a body of believers and that, according to Wesley, there is no such thing as solitary religion. Whether Christ is the first thing out of our mouth or not, we must be passionate about Christ before we will be able to reach these generations. We can become passionate by focusing on Christ and focusing on those who are not yet followers of Christ. A passion for the lost is essential in evangelism. Two of my closest friends had not been saved, and my heart felt great pain and anguish knowing that if everything ended right then, I would be without them for eternity, and more importantly, they without God. We must also focus on sin, not avoiding it so as to attract people. A seeker sensitive church will die if sin in not recognized. Evangelistic decisions are the most powerful catalyst for change and growth in a church and pastor. As such, we should know our purpose as a church and embrace it. I will focus on st pauls lutheran church. In tandem with many other churches, St. Pauls indeed has an official membership list that includes many people who have left the congregation. However, around 75 adults have attended or made a contribution to some extent to St. Pauls over the past year, along with 12 children and 3 teenagers. Pastor Nadines yearly salary is $15,500. If we are to create a church, we must begin with a strong foundation. According to Rick Warren, â€Å"If you want to build a healthy, strong, and growing church you must spend time laying a solid foundation. This done by clarifying in the minds of everyone involved exactly why the church exists and what it is supposed to do† (86). First, a clear purpose builds moral. The moral of a church will be much higher if they know why they exist. Second, a clear purpose reduces much frustration. We are helped to put aside the petty things and recognize what we are not seeking to do. A clear purpose within a church allows for concentration. The more focus a church has, the higher impact it will have on the people around it. If focus is lost, therefore, the impact of the church will be negligible. It is also vital not to flood the church calendar. The goal of the church is not to overwhelm its people, but to quench them. Tradition should never stand above excellence within the church. If an event or tradition is now failing, it should probably be removed. Chances are that new traditions could be started that could have a much great impact on both the church and the people in the neighboring areas. Programs should never be started if they do not run in line with the purpose of the church. So, just because a program may seem to be well-intentioned and may even have well affects on the church, that doesn’t mean those affects are furthering the purpose of the church. Serious setbacks could occur in this manner. When beginning new ministries within the church, the pastor or initiator of the idea must not stand alone in developing it. At this point delegations need to be made to people who are trustworthy and effective. They must know their duties or the ministry will fail. A clear purpose also attracts cooperation. We must make sure members understand the purpose of the church so they can be comfortable with what is being taught and what ministries are taking place. Someone who is out of touch with the purpose of the church may begin to feel excluded and angry that things are not going as they â€Å"should.† Some people may transfer to a church with a set purpose and have their own ideas about ways things should be done based on their past experiences. These people must not be part of the decision making processes of the church in terms of its purpose. As the rest of the congregation has already committed to the purpose, changing it now would be quite unhealthy for the church. Finally, having a clear purpose for the church makes it easier to evaluate the growth and success of the church. With clear goals having been set, it is easy to look and see what has and has not been accomplished (Maddix,). Once these purposes are established, it is important to organize around them. In doing so, there are five basic purpose-driven church types as outlined in lecture. First is the Soul Winning Church. The pastor is the evangelist and the primary goal is reaching the lost. Second is the Experiencing God Church. This church focuses on experiencing the presence and power of God in worship. The third type is the Family Reunion Church. The primary focus here is fellowship. The pastor is usually very relational, loving and spending time with his people. The next type is the Classroom Church. Here the pastor is primarily a teacher. The sermons will almost always include taking notes. I would place most of the Nazarene churches I have attended in this category primarily. The final type is the Social Conscience Church. The pastor is seen as a prophet or reformer. The church is primarily concerned with changing society- â€Å"doers of the Word.† With all of these available, it becomes essential to produce a good balance. These purposes must still be applied further. We should work to constantly be working to assimilate newcomers if we wish to keep them as a part of the church. To do this the church must be prepared for newcomers with its Greeter/Usher ministry as well as its care ministries team. A follow-up on newcomers almost always lets them know that they were noticed and are cared about. At least a few contacts should be made in the first week whether from the pastor directly or from care team members. The programs within the church must be relevant to the purpose of the church, as stated before. Programs should be servants to the purpose. Also reiterated, is that the people must be educated as to the purpose of the church. If people know the purpose, they will begin to live according to the purpose as evangelists, worshipers, disciples and ministers. Small groups have become on the most successful ways of reaching out to the present generations. These groups can be seeker groups which meet away from the church in a home or for an activity. The purpose of seeker groups is develop relationship with the lost. Disciple/Growth groups are great for Christians of all maturity levels, but especially for the new Christian. Support groups such as prison ministries, divorce, alcohol and drug recovery groups are widely accepted and appreciated by the community, helping others and their families. If at all possible, staff should be built around people from within the church. Anyone brought in must be extremely likable and hold a similar missional view for the church. There should be mission teams, music teams, membership teams, maturity team, and ministry teams as part of the church. With each owning a specific purpose within the church, no single one is being emphasize, and no one is being left out. The pastor should preach according to the purpose of the church. This should be how the church grows to accept and believe in its purpose. The priorities of a church are easily seen through its budget and calendar. The budget should be scheduled wisely and in ways that directly impact the purposes of the church. The purposes of the church must also show up on the calendar. If they are not there, they will not succeed. Finally we should evaluate our church purposefully. Our standards should be set on how well we achieve our purposes. It is also quite important to recognize the significance of vision for the church. Vision is defined as â€Å"my understanding of what God wants done in the place where he has placed me.† If the vision of the pastor is not accepted by the majority of the congregation, it should probably be reevaluated. In some cases the church itself may be quite ill and not really understand what it needs. A slow movement in the direction is the only way to help such churches turn themselves around. Without a vision, the church has nothing to aspire to. As Proverbs 29:18 says, â€Å"Where there is no vision the people perish.† A can be worn down over time if it lacks vision. Specific goals set for the church keep members active in their faith and daily activities. Vision, like purpose, must be passed on to the congregation through passionate messages from the pastor. Such vision must also inspire the pastor to live accordingly as an example for his congregation. If the people don’t know or understand the vision of the church and the pastor, then the pastor isn’t doing a well enough job communicating it. Vision must not attempt to go beyond the reasonable means of the church. The gifts and talents of the pastor and the congregation limit the vision of a church. This factor of vision is just the first of nine factors that are nearly always present in growing churches. The second factor is evangelism. Because God intends his church to grow, all members of the church body are to be evangelists. Congregation must acknowledge that they have to go outside to evangelize, not sit comfortably within the walls of the church. Thirdly is the maturation factor. The church must develop leaders through the maturing of their faith. Fourth is the worship factor. People must know that worship is key to our faith, for we were created to worship God. Sjogren’s Power Principle #7 states that your style is not the key to success, so although your church will be identified by your worship style, God comes into your midst, not because of worship style, but because hearts are hungry for the presence of God. Fifth is the preaching factor. Preaching must be done in a way that leads the congregation to understand the faith of the pastor. Television and computers have changed the way people expect to be informed at church. According to Rainer, the unchurched want a pastor who is â€Å"real† and is a person of conviction; they want a good communicator and a good leader. Furthermore, they want to hear preaching that teaches the Bible and applies to their own individual lives.† Leadership, giving, mission, and the birthing of new ideas finish of the list of factors for church growth. Leaders must be strong and confident, giving must be done sacrificially, and people must have a world view of missions. Turning attendees in members into ministers is the encompassing purpose in a church’s discipleship program. If members can be made who possess a serious passion for the lost, then a church is well-on its way to long-term success. In our recent trip to the Seattle area, we experienced several churches which had great outreach success. Mars Hill church was by far the most successful. It was obvious because of the size of the church (running c.500), as well as the specific focus and outreach. With hundreds of small groups and a target audience of 16-35, Mars Hill represents a successful outreaching church. Other churches showed their weaknesses within pastoral staff and mixed traditions as compared to the vision and purpose of the church. Bibliography Hunter, George G. III. The Celtic Way of Evagelism. 2000, Abington Press, Nashville, Maddix, Mark. Class Lectures, Spring 2005. Northwest Nazarene University, Nampa, McLaren, Brian D. More Ready Than You Realize. 2002, Zondervan, Grand Rapids, . Warren, Rick. Purpose Driven Church. 1995, Nelson Books, Nashville, TN.

Force majeure and hardship

Force majeure and hardship INTRODUCTION A basic and universally accepted principle of contract law is pacta sunt servanda. This principle means that each party to an agreement is responsible for its non-execution, even if the cause of the failure is beyond his power and was not or could not be foreseen at the time of signing the agreement. The principle reflects natural justice and economic requirements because it binds a person to their promises and protects the interests of the other party. Since effective economic activity is not possible without reliable promises, the importance of this principle has to be emphasized. On the other hand, practice has demonstrated that on many occasions application of this principle may lead to the opposite of its aim. That is to say, the situation existing at the conclusion of the contract may subsequently have changed so completely that the parties, acting as reasonable persons, would not have made the contract, or would have made it differently, had they known what was going to happen. This situation is unlikely to arise with short-term contracts, which often exhibit a simple structure where non-performances are exchanged for money. In international trade, however, many contracts are of a more complicated structure, and even if they are not long term contracts, they frequently exist over a substantive period. International trade transactions generally imply a greater element of uncertainty because they are subject to political and economic influences in foreign countries. Different legal concepts deal with this problem of changed circumstances and provide for the discharge of the duty to perform of one or both parties when a contract has become unexpectedly onerous or impossible to perform. The classic concept of force majeure is primarily directed at settling the problems resulting from non-performance, either by suspension or by termination. Concepts likeimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionor hardship are mainly directed at the adaptation of the contract. Although all legal systems take notice of the situation of changed circumstances, the conditions under which they allow the defence of force majeure vary. Furthermore, the adaptation of the contract is not universally accepted. Attempts have been made to tackle these problems on an international level. In particular, the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) addresses the issue of changed circumstances. It avoids reference to the existing concepts because it has developed a system of its own. This concept, however, is generally not regarded as being able to solve the problem entirely. Parties to international sales transactions, therefore, frequently include special clauses in their contracts dealing with matters of hardship and force majeure. This paper aims to give some idea of the concepts of hardship and force majeure in the context of international sales transactions. First, the concepts will be discussed on a theoretical basis. The different approaches to the situation of changed circumstances in the major legal systems will then be discussed. Article 79 of the CISG will be introduced, interpreted, and its scope determined. It will then be possible to ascertain if, to what extent, and what kind of clauses dealing with the matter of changed circumstances, should be inserted into international sales contracts. Force majeure and hardship clauses will then be discussed in more detail. Finally, the use of standard forms of contract, with special regard to the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts, will be considered, and a recommendation as to force majeure and hardship clauses will be made. FORCE MAJEURE AND HARDSHIP THE CONCEPTS IN GENERAL The two major legal concepts dealing with the problem of changed circumstances are those of force majeure and hardship. In order to understand the interpretation and discussion of Article 79 of the CISG and the deliberations on force majeure and hardship clauses in international sales contracts, the two concepts first have to be considered on a general and theoretical basis. 1. Force majeure The concept of force majeure, providing for the discharge of one or both parties when a contract has become impossible to perform, has evolved progressively in international trade practice by assuming many original and autonomous features distinct from similar legal concepts. The approach of municipal legal systems to situations of force majeure varies from country to country. Despite these circumstances, certain general characteristics of the conception of force majeure can be determined. The roots of the classic concept lie in the Code Napol ¿Ã‚ ½on, from which the words force majeure (an irresistible compulsion or coercion) are taken. An English courts interpretation of the words held that they have a more extensive meaning than act of God or vis major. Act of God is defined as an event happening independently of human volition, which human foresight and care could not reasonably anticipate or avoid. According to the judgment, the words force majeure could cover the dislocation of a business due to a universal coal strike or accidents to machinery, but would not cover bad weather, football matches, or a funeral.In Brauer Co. v. James Clark it was held that a party could not rely on force majeure simply because the price it was required to pay for the goods was considerably in excess of the price at which it had contracted to sell them. In more general terms, it can be said that force majeure occurs when the performance of a contract is impossible due to unforeseeable events beyond the control of the parties. The following is a possible definition of force majeure: Force majeure occurs when the law recognizes that without default of either party a contractual obligation has become incapable of being performed because the circumstances in which the performance is called for would render it impossible. I promised to do this but I cannot due to some irresistible unforeseeable and uncontrollable event. A similar definition is contained in Article 7.1.7 of the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts where, under the headline of Force majeure, it is stated that a partys non-performance is excused if that party proves that the non-performance was due to an impediment beyond its control, and that it could not reasonably be expected to have taken the impediment into account at the time of the conclusion of the contract or to have avoided or overcome the impediment or its consequences. The aim of the classic concept of force majeure, as is reflected in Article 7.1.7 of the UNIDROIT Principles, is to settle the problems resulting from non-performance either by suspension or termination. 2. Hardship The concept of hardship is usually discussed in the context of hardship clauses, which are frequently introduced into contracts in international trade. The term hardship, however, has also been used in legislation, e.g., in the Australian National Security (Landlord and Tenant) Regulations and the Landlord and Tenant (Amendment) Act 1948-1964. With respect to those rules, courts had to interpret the term hardship and determine its scope. Thus, it was held that hardship, as used in the National Security Regulations, may be regarded as the subjective effect of a detrimental nature upon the person concerned. In another decision interpreting the Landlord and Tenant Act, hardship was said to include any matter of appreciable detriment whether financial, personal or otherwise. The circumstances in which hardship generally exists (as usually set out in hardship clauses) normally incorporate three elements. First, the circumstances must have arisen beyond the control of either party; self-induced hardship is irrelevant. Second, they must be of fundamental character. Third, they must be entirely uncontemplated and unforeseeable. A clear descriptive definition of hardship is contained in the UNIDROIT Principles. It reads as follows (Article 6.2.2): There is hardship where the occurrence of events fundamentally alters the equilibrium of the contract either because the cost of a partys performance has increased or because the value of the performance a party receives has diminished, and the events occur or become known to the disadvantaged party after the conclusion of the contract; the events could not reasonably have been taken into account by the disadvantaged party at the time of the conclusion of the contract; the events are beyond the control of the disadvantaged party; and the risk of the events was not assumed by the disadvantaged party. The concept of hardship intends to solve problems of such fundamentally altered circumstances by adapting the contract to the new situation. 3. Differences between the two concepts The concepts of hardship and force majeure seem to be related to each other, particularly since they share some features: they both cater to situations of changed circumstances. The difference between the two concepts is most aptly described in such a way: hardship is at stake where the performance of the disadvantaged party has become much more burdensome, but not impossible, while force majeure means that the performance . . . the party concerned has become impossible, at least temporarily. Moreover, there seems to be a functional difference between the two concepts. Hardship constitutes a reason for a change in the contractual program of the parties. The aim of the parties remains to implement the contract. Force majeure, however, is situated in the context of non-performance, and deals with the suspension or termination of the contract. DIFFERENT APPROACHES OF DOMESTIC LEGAL SYSTEMS The approach of municipal legal systems to the problem of changed circumstances varies from country to country. Although all these concepts are related to each other, since they share important features, the distinction between them is extremely important in drafting choice of law clauses in international contracts. Furthermore, it is important to have knowledge about the law that will apply when a force majeure or hardship clause is left out of a contract, and no unified international rules are applicable. Moreover, in order to have relevance and serve a purpose, force majeure and hardship clauses should differ from the doctrine that would be applicable to the problem of changing circumstances, if such clauses were left out of the contract. Thus, the scope of those doctrines has to be determined. The illustration and comparison of force majeure and hardship will also give a deeper insight into the structure and functioning of these concepts in general. For this purpose English, American, French, German and South African law and their approaches to the situation of changed circumstances will now be analyzed. 1. England Consistent with the common law approach to strict liability for breach, the traditional common law rule was that conditions rendering performance impossible, that occurred after the execution of a contract, did not excuse performance. The reason for this was stated inParadine v. Janewhere the Kings Bench held that: When the party by his own contract creates a duty or charge upon himself, he is bound to make it good, if he may, notwithstanding any accident by inevitable necessity, because he might have provided against it by the contract. Such a rigid interpretation prevailed in the United Kingdom until 1863. InTaylor v. Caldwell the court changed its traditional opinion: the strict rule should only apply when the contract is positive and absolute, and not subject to any condition either express or implied. The court held that in contracts where performance depends on the continued existence of a given person or thing, a condition is implied that the impossibility of performance arising from the perishing of the person or thing shall excuse the performance. With this theory of implied condition, the doctrine of impossibility was introduced into English law. The concept of frustration, which developed from the doctrine of impossibility, is based on the sole interpretation of the intent of the parties. If stemming from an act of God, the performance of a contract is to take place under circumstances which are totally different from what the parties envisaged, and therefore, the agreement is frustrated. The concept originates from the famousCoronation cases. For instance, in one such case, an apartment was rented for one day because it afforded a privileged view of the Coronation parade of Edward VII. When the parade was cancelled due to the Kings illness, the landlord sued for the rent. The court, however, decided the contract was frustrated because its execution was fundamentally and essentially different from what the parties had intended. According to the doctrine of frustration, the concept dealing with situations of changed circumstances in English law today, a contract can be frustrated by impossibility, physical, e.g., destruction of the subject-matter, or for legal reasons, e.g., illegality, or by the occurrence of a radical change in circumstances, so that the foundation of the contract has been vitiated. If the contract were to retain its validity under such changed circumstances, it would amount to a new and different contract. The doctrine, by covering situations which do not amount to the impossibility of the performance is thus wider than the concept of force majeure. When a contract is frustrated, a judge cannot amend or adjust it to the new situation. Frustration simply discharges the contract. Although the prerequisites of frustration are rather similar to those required by the concept of hardship, the former is final, by disallowing the adaptation of the contract, directed at another aim. 2. United States Also based on the doctrine of impossibility and its further developments, the United States doctrines regarding changed circumstances are carefully defined in both the U.S. Restatement (Second) of Contracts and the Uniform Commercial Code. Section 261 of the Restatement (Second) is entitled Discharge by Supervening Impracticability and reads as follows: Where, after a contract is made, a partys performance is made impracticable without his fault by the occurrence of an event, the non-occurrence of which was a basic assumption in which the contract was made, his duty to render that performance is discharged, unless the language or the circumstances indicate the contrary. The Uniform Commercial Code, in Section 2-615, entitled Excuse by failure of presupposed conditions also employs the term Impracticable. In both statutes this term encompasses impossible. The relevant paragraph of U.C.C. Section 2-615 reads: Except so far as a seller may have assumed a greater obligation and subject to the preceding section on substituted performance: (a) Delay in delivery or non-delivery in whole or in part by a seller who complies with paragraphs (b) and (c) is not in breach of his duty under a contract for sale if performance as agreed has been made impracticable by the occurrence of a contingency the non-occurrence of which was the basic assumption on which the contract was made or by compliance in good faith with any foreign or domestic governmental regulation or order whether or not it later proves to be invalid. U.C.C. Section 2-615 Paragraph (b) contains an allocation requirement in the event only part of a sellers capacity to perform is affected. Paragraph (c) states a notice requirement. According to its wording, U.C.C. Section 2-615 only excuses the seller from the delivery of the goods contracted for. The general belief, however, is that this provision is to be considered equally applicable to buyers. The concept of commercial impracticability, which discharges a partys duty although the event has not made performance absolutely impossible, has been adopted in order to call attention to the commercial character of the context in which the excuse defence is used. Courts, however, have been reluctant to accept anything short of impossibility as an excuse for performance. The United States approach to situations of changed circumstances is broader than that of the classical concept of force majeure. The United States approach does not allow the adaptation of the contract and because of the courts way of treating impracticability, it is not as far-reaching as the concept of hardship. 3. France Under French law, the line is drawn between the impossibility of the performance on the one hand, i.e., force majeure, and, on the other hand, circumstances which destabilize the contract where economic conditions are such that fundamental and far-reaching changes occur. The latter is called the doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision. In France, the principlepacta sunt servanda(as incorporated in Article 1134 of the French Civil Code) prevails over the principlerebus sic stantibus. If the contract does not contain any provision regarding events of changing circumstances, then, the performance of the contract will be enforced without any changes to the contract. A judge is not supposed to appraise the economic situation of the parties or to rule in equity against the wording of a contract. In principle, the only excuse for non-performance of the contract is force majeure. The doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionhas not been adopted by French courts. Article 1142 of the French Civil Code stipulates that any obligation to do, or not to do, is dissolved by damages whenever the debtor does not execute the obligation. Article 1148, however, specifies that damages are not due in the case of force majeure. While courts have applied those Articles strictly, some change and more flexibility is noticeable in recent case law. Although courts do not apply the doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision, they have not explicitly rejected it. The application of Article 1148 requires four conditions to be fulfilled simultaneously: the event is irresistible (this clearly distinguishes the force majeure fromimpr ¿Ã‚ ½vision): the event must be unforeseeable: the event is to be an outside one: The failure of suppliers or subcontractors or associates is no excuse for the contractor: the debtor is not at fault: The event should be unavoidable and absolutely beyond the control of the debtor. Article 1148, in recognizing that a contract can be discharged due to force majeure, is not mandatory law. Parties are free to give their definition to force majeure events and the judge has to respect such definition. As the roots of the classical concept of force majeure lie in the Code Napol ¿Ã‚ ½on, this concept and the present approach to the problem of changed circumstances in France, correspond widely. A greater degree of flexibility in the latter has only been noted recently. The doctrine ofimpr ¿Ã‚ ½visionis the counterpart of the concept of hardship. The former, however, is not part of French law. 4. Germany The German approach to the problem is rather flexible. Under German law, the rulepacta sunt servandais certainly not adhered to anymore in the strictest sense. This is not surprising in a country where, after World War I, the value of the items on the menu in a restaurant could change between the placing of the order and the arrival of the bill. As a general rule, section 275 of the B ¿Ã‚ ½rgerliches Gesetzbuch discharges the debtor of his obligation if, after the conclusion of the contract, its performance was rendered impossible for reasons other than negligence, his own fault, or the negligence of his employees. The impossibility of performance (Unm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeit) can be of a physical or legal nature. The performance may still be possible at a later time without unreasonable damage to the other party. As a consequence of World War I, some judges and legal scholars began advocating the doctrine ofUnm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeitfor application to economic impossibility. According to such experts, the debtor cannot be forced to comply with efforts or sacrifices which are beyond what parties reasonably envisaged in good faith. This doctrine is called Opfergrenze. The doctrine ofOpfergrenzeis a suitable stepping stone to the famous German doctrine of theWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlage. According to the latter doctrine, every contract has a basic aim, emanating from a basic intention of the parties, which cannot be achieved or realised in the absence of an existing environment, e.g. the prevailing economic and social order, the value of the currency, normal political conditions, etc. This definition of theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagebears close resemblance to therebus sic stantibus doctrine in international public law treaties. A line should be drawn between the so-called erg ¿Ã‚ ½nzende Vertragsauslegung (an interpretation of the contract which fills gaps) and theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagenlehre.According to the former, which requires a gap in the contract, the function of the judge is to complete the contract, whereby he should give an interpretation of what the parties actually would have wanted if a given event had been contemplated. According to theGesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagenlehre, the judge is not only allowed to complete a contract, but depending on the object of the contract, the judge can also change its terms or terminate it. There is a little difference and if so, not an essential difference between the reasoning in the classical force majeure concept and the German reasoning in theUnm ¿Ã‚ ½glichkeit. Furthermore, the doctrine of theWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlage, aiming at an adaptation of the contract, is very similar to the concept of hardship. 5. South Africa Until 1919, there was a general assumption that . . . no difference between South African law and English law on the effect of supervening impossibility. The English approach was adopted in a number of cases until the case ofPeters, Flamman andCo v. Kokstad Municipality was decided. According to this case, if a person is prevented from performing his contract byvis majororcasus fortuitus. . . he is discharged from liability. In applying the principle that supervening impossibility discharges the contract, impossibility must be given the same meaning as when initial impossibility is under consideration, i.e., the impossibility must be absolute (as opposed to probable and relative) and it must not be the fault of either party. Most important is the fact that, ifvis majororcasus fortuitushas made it uneconomical for a party to carry out its obligations, it does not mean that it has become impossible. Additionally, sincePeters,Flamman and Co.there is no room in South African law for the English doctrine of frustration. The decision in the recent case ofKok v. Osborne and Another, however, could be a first step toward recognition of the concept of commercial impossibility in South African law. The plaintiff in this case (Mrs. Kok) entered into a contract of sale as the buyer . . . wrongly assumed that the seller had already been paid by a third person. The court held that the contract between the litigants hinged on the assumption that the defendant indeed had been paid, which in fact did not happen, and that the contract failed due to supervening impossibility of performance. In this case, the courts opintion was that South African law recognises commercial impracticability as a form of supervening impossibility as does the English. This decision, however, has been heavily criticised by commentators for different reasons. As a result, the doctrine of frustration under the English law is not a recognised part of South African law. Moreover, it is properly stated that supervening impossibility is not applicable in the present case. For these reasons, it is not likely that the case ofKok v. Osborne and Anotherconstitutes the starting point for a change in the South African approach to the problem of changing circumstances. Thus, one can conclude that the South African approach corresponds with the concept of force majeure. Situations of hardship do not discharge a party of its liability. ARTICLE 79 CISG Article 79 is the provision of the CISG, that deals with situations of changed circumstances. More precisely, it deals with the circumstances in which the buyer or seller may be excused from performance of his contractual obligations because of an extraneous event that is judged sufficiently important to warrant the excuse. This is a situation which is referred to as frustration, force majeure orWegfall der Gesch ¿Ã‚ ½ftsgrundlagein different legal systems. In subsequent chapters the legislative history of Article 79 and its significance for international trade will be outlined. Its contents, scope of application, and legal effect will also be analysed and evaluated. A. The significance of the CISG for international sales transactions Never before has the increase in international commerce been as significant as it has been during recent decades. Many difficulties occur in the context of an international sale of goods as a consequence of the considerable differences in the national rules governing the law of sales. Thus, the expanding volume of international sales requires a common understanding of the legal rights and duties among partners to an international transaction. The CISG is understood as a modern uniform substitute for the wide array of foreign legal systems. It is based on the Uniform Law for the International Sale of Goods (ULIS) and the Uniform Law on the Formation of Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (ULF), drafted by the Rome Institute. These two Conventions had a rather limited success; only nine countries have become members. The United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), therefore, in a further attempt to unify the law governing the international sale of goods, prepared the Draft Convention on Contract for the International Sale of Goods. This was finalised at a diplomatic conference in Vienna in 1980 and entered into force in 1988. Nations are now ratifying or acceding to this Convention at a pace comparable to that of the New York Convention on the Recognition and Enforcement of Foreign Arbitral Awards when it was promulgated. The latter is said to be the most successful instance of international legislation in the history of commercial law. The CISG harmonised interests and ideas of different legal systems and of countries on different levels of economic development. Thus, a text that is suited for implementation in civil law countries and common law countries and for economies that are developed and those which are developing. According to Article 1, the Convention applies to international contracts for the sale of goods (if the parties have not rejected its application in their contract Article 6) when the States where the parties have their places of business, are in different contracting states, or the rules of private international law lead to the application of the law of a Contracting State. As more than fifty countries have already enacted the Convention, among them major trading nations like the United States, Germany, France, or China, the Convention can apply to a large number of transactions. This number will continue to increase with the accession of further countries to the CISG. Only ten years after entering into force, the Convention can already be considered a success. Its significance for international sales transactions will increase in future years. B. Legislative history of Article 79 1. The role of legislative history As previously discussed, the CISG was created to free international commerce from a babel of diverse domestic legal systems. The ultimate goal of the Convention is the uniform application of the uniform rules. The Convention will often be applied by tribunals (judges or arbitrators) who are only intimately familiar with their own domestic law. These tribunals will be subject to a natural tendency to read the international rules in the light of the legal ideas of those specific systems. In order to control the damage, there will be long-range correctives through international critique of questionable interpretations; to this end measures have been taken for the collection and publication of caselaw produced under the Convention, e.g., CLOUT (Case Law On UNCITRAL Texts). These measures, however, take time to become effective. Fortunately, there need not be a delay in using the legislative history, which sets out the evolution of the uniform law, to counteract the tendency to view the Convention through the lenses of domestic law. The Conventions legislative history provides an international reference point in applying the uniform international law, and its record clarifies the purpose and in tent of the Conventions words. 2. The evolution of Article 79 Article 79 is a revised version of the exemption clause in ULIS (Article 74). Its development, as a part of the CISG, went through three stages: (1) The UNCITRAL Working Group (1970-1977); (2) Review by the full Commission (1977-1978); (3) The Diplomatic Conference (1980). Article 74 ULIS was criticised during the discussions of the Working Group. The clause was thought to make it too easy for the promisor to excuse his non-performance of the contract. Grounds for relief were not only physical or legal impossibility, or circumstances which fundamentally altered the character of the performance owed, but the provision could also apply to situations where performance had unexpectedly been made more difficult. Several members of the Working Group were, therefore, in favour of restricting the grounds for relief and making them more objective. The Working Group set up a drafting party, but it could not agree on a revised wording. It submitted a draft which was provisionally adopted by the drafting party (Alternative A) and an alternative proposal of the Norwegian observer (Alternative B). Following a study by the British delegate, the Working Group adopted a version which largely followed Alternative A. This based the promisors liability on fault, but transferred the basic concept of the impediment taken from Alternative B into the first paragraph. The version was adopted as Article 50 in the 1976 Geneva Draft. In reformulating the grounds for exemption in Article 51 of the 1977 Vienna Draft, the former Article 50, the requirement of the promisor not being at fault was abandoned and replaced by an objective test of the impediment beyond control. The 1978 New York Draft adopted Article 51 of the Vienna Draft relatively unchanged as Article 65. At the Vienna Conference, the Norwegian delegation proposed that paragraph (3) be supplemented by stating that if a temporary impediment ceased and the circumstances had radically changed to such an extent that it would clearly be unreasonable to continue to hold the promisor to his obligation, he should be released from that obligation. It was, however, argued that such an extension would introduce theth ¿Ã‚ ½orie de limpr ¿Ã‚ ½visioninto the Convention, and the proposal was therefore rejected. There was, nevertheless, agreement that the limitation in paragraph (3) should be deleted, i.e., that an exemption was only for the period during which the impediment existed. Contents of Article 79 CISG The meaning and purpose of the different provisions of Article 79 will now be considered in more detail. 1. The general rule paragraph (1) Paragraph (1) sets out the conditions under which a party is not l

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview A traditional dice is a small polyhedral object, usually cubic in shape. It generates a random number in the range of one to six. There are also non cubical dice with different number of faces such as tetrahedrons (four faces), octahedrons (eight faces) or dodecahedrons (twelve faces). A digital dice is an alternative device that can be used to replace the traditional device with the help of a numeric display. It is controlled with the help of a switch. The count will display numbers randomly from one to six on the 7 segment display in a push of the button. 1.1 Rules of the Game: The Digital Dice game consists of two players, Player A and Player B. Both the players, Player A and Player B, are given a switch each to control the dice. In this game, only one player is allowed to play at a time and the input of only one player is counted at a time. A LED indicates the players turn. The output of each players throw is added to the output of their previous throws number. This gives their final score. The maximum count is taken as 30. When any one of the players reaches the maximum count of 30, the Game ends. The player (Player A or Player B) has won the game. The beeper along with a light indicates the players victory. Chapter 2:  Circuit Description This chapter gives a detailed description of the block diagram for the Digital Dice game project. It discusses the main parts and also gives a detailed explanation on the same. 2.1 Block Diagram The main parts of the block diagram as shown in figure 1 are: 2 Clock pulses Random Number Generator Digital Dice Display 2 Adder Circuits (including the seven segment FND display) Game Over disabling circuit Reset switch 2.2 Clock Pulse Clock pulse is a signal used to synchronize the operations of an electronic system. They are continuous and precisely spaced changes in voltage. The main aim of this part in the circuit is to give the appropriate clock pulses to the next circuits to make a progress in the game. For this purpose, 2 clocks have been employed for each player. Here a special circuit has to be employed so as not to allow the player that has already played to play until his opponent has had his chance. This is done by using the Toggling feature of J-K flip-flop (IC 7476). Each of the 2 clock pulses is then ANDED with the 2 outputs of J-K flip-flop which is Q and Q. At any point of time, only one of Q and Q will be HIGH and so only one player will be able to play at a time as per the rules of the game. The clock of the other player being ANDED with zero will be ineffective. The appropriate clock then will pass through the OR gate and into the input clock of the J-K flip-flop, thus toggling it and providing a chance for the other player to play. The output of the OR gate is given to the rest of the entire circuit as a common clock. 2.3 Random Number Generator The main aim of this part is to generate any number between 1 and 6 (inclusive) i.e. 3-bit binary number, similar to a cubic dice where each face represents a number. However, the number generated in this circuit is not in any kind of a predictable sequence and is in a perfectly random similar to an actual dice in such a game. This is facilitated by the use of IC NE-555, which generates series of output clock pulses. The resistors and capacitors surrounding it formulate a particular RC time constant and the IC then continues to generate output clock pulses till the end of this time period. So, when the appropriate clock pulse is obtained from the above discussed clock pulse circuit, the pulses generated by IC NE-555 are fed to the next Integrated Circuit, Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). Another Integrated Circuit, Decade Counter (IC 7490) can also be used. The Binary Ripple Counter counts from 0 to 5 i.e. 3-bit numbers provided the MSB (Most significant Bit) of the counter is not considered. After the count reaches five, the Counter resets to zero. When many clock pulses are received by it in a single time-constant period, it counts from 0-5 many times and outputs any of these numbers. This is known as Random Number Generation. However, the numbers obtained from the above procedure are between 0 and 5 (inclusive) and the desired numbers are from 1 6. This is taken into account by including another Integrated circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) which increments the above generated number by 1 as it is between 0 and 5. The output of the Binary Parallel Adder is the final desired random number which is then fed into the Digital Dice-Display circuit as shown in the figure 1. 2.4 Digital Dice Display Circuit The only purpose of this part is to show the face of the Dice corresponding to the number generated by the randomizer circuit. This is done with the help of a BCD 7 Segment decoder which is used to drive a common anode 7 segment display. The output of the above discussed circuit forms the input for the BCD which then enters the input of seven segment decoder. The random number generated by the random number generator circuit will be displayed on the 7 segment display when the button is pushed by a player. The number displayed is any number between 1to 6 in a complete random sequence. 2.5 Adder Circuits This is the core part of this game. All the numbers generated so far should be accounted for each player independently in the form of their score. As discussed earlier, this score gets incremented by each alternate fall of numbers on the dice. The Adder circuit performs this function. The Adder circuit is made up of a group of 3 AND gates. One of the inputs of the AND gates is a bit of the random number generation and the other input is one of Q and Q (outputs of the J K flip-flop as discussed above in the Clock Pulses section). Hence, at a time, the score of only the appropriate player gets incremented by the number on the dice. Whereas the score of the other player remains the same (i.e. gets added by 0). The outputs of the 3 AND gates enter the Integrated Circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) as inputs for A. The Most significant bit (MSB) A is kept grounded. The inputs for B come from the output of the Integrated circuit, 4-bit Register (IC 74194) and these stores the Least significant bit (LSB) of the final score. There are two Binary Parallel Adders and the output of this 1st Adder (IC 7483) is connected to the 2nd Adder (IC 7483), which converts the added binary number into its decimal equivalent and stores the output in the above mentioned 4 Bit register (IC 74194). This conversion is produced with the help of different logic gates (AND and OR gates). When the binary number is greater than 9, 6 (0110) is added to it, else 0 (0000) is added to the number thus generating the equivalent LSB decimal number. Therefore, the LSB remains less than or equal to 9, thus representing the score in decimal form. The same technique is applied to the Most Significant Bit of the score. Here, 1 is added to the MSB of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), if the above generated binary number is greater than 9. The other input for this 3rd IC-7483 comes from another 4-bit register (IC 74194). Therefore, the MSB can also show decimal numbers from 0 9. The same Most Significant Bit and Least Significant Bit numbers from the Adders are given as input to Integrated circuit, BCD (IC 7447), which is the driver IC to the Seven-Segment LED display. The outputs of this Integrated circuit are fed into the LT-543, to show the corresponding numbers. An important point to be noted here is that the same common clock is given to the above mentioned IC-74194 registers so that they can output the stored numbers each time. 2.6 Game Over Disabling Circuit This part of the block diagram indicates the END of the game, i.e. Game Over. The game is considered to be over once the score of any one of the two players (Player A or Player B) reaches/crosses the score of 30. The second input of the Most Significant Bits of the Most Significant Bit of the decimal score of both the players form the input to the NOR gate. Thus, when any score reaches/crosses 30, the 2nd Most Significant Bit becomes HIGH. Thus NOR output becomes LOW (i.e. In a NOR gate, when any one of the inputs is HIGH, the output is LOW). This is then ANDED with the clock-pulse to be given to the J-K flip-flop. As a result, the J-K flip-flop does not receive any clock. Thus, the toggling feature of the flip flop stops. Thus, the random number generation stops and the Dice-display remain unchanged. And, finally the scores remain fixed. Therefore, the game has come to an end The winning player (Player A or Player B) is identified by the tone of the buzzer/alarm along with a LED to provide an indicating light. This is having one end on the above 2nd Most Significant Bit and the other end grounded. 2.7 Reset Switch This is also a very important part of the game. The function of this switch is to bring the game back to start from any point of time. This is performed with the help of a Combinational Circuit and a Push-to-OFF switch. This is a kind of switch which has its 2 ends always connected, except when pressed/pushed. Thus, one end of the switch is grounded. Therefore, by default this makes the clear inputs of all registers HIGH. Here, the registers employ Active Low Clear inputs. When the switch is not pushed, HIGH clear is fed to the registers via a NOT gate. Therefore, normal functioning of all the registers is obtained. Also, the output drawn from the OR gate then depends on the output from the AND gate (the 2 inputs of the AND gate come from the 2nd Most Significant Bit and 3rd Most Significant Bit of the output of the Binary Ripple Counter, IC 7493). When the switch is pressed, the connection of its 2 ends gets broken and thus making the Clear input to all registers LOW via the NOT gate (i.e. all registers are cleared). Therefore, one of the inputs to the IC 7483 Adders become 0000. And, also the input of the OR gate becomes HIGH, thereby ignoring the 2nd input and thus providing HIGH output to the RO(1) Clear input of the Binary ripple counter, IC 7493. Now, the counter is reset by 2nd Clear input RO(2) as it becomes HIGH, providing 0000 output. This forms the other input of Binary parallel adder, IC 7483. Thus, the Adder circuits display 00 in the 7 segment display. This 0000 output is then carried via the Binary parallel adder, IC 7483 (here the input carry is also 0) to the Dice-display circuit which displays 00. Chapter 3:  Random Number Generation Circuit This chapter explains the circuit diagram required for the random number generation and the digital dice display. It also talks about the working for the same. 3.1 Circuit Diagram The below figure (figure 2) shows the circuit diagram used for the random number generation of a digital dice. 3.2 Operation Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram to generate any random number between 1 and 6 and display it on the 7 segment display. In operation, a clock frequency of 50 Hz is generated by the pulse generator. It is ANDED with the push button. When the push button is pressed, the clock pulse generates a series of clock pulses. The combination of the clock pulse and the push button forms the counter clock for the Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). This counter behaves as a Mod 6 Counter and it counts from 0 5. Once the count reaches 5, it resets to zero. Thus, the connection of QB (with value 2) to R0 (1) and QC (with value 4) to R0(2) respectively. The output of this counter is connected to the input A of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), i.e. QA, QB, QC, QD to A1, A2, A3, A4 respectively. The function of the adder is to add the number 1 (Binary 0001) to the output from the Binary ripple counter. This is done by grounding the pins B1, B2, B3 and the pin B4 is connected to the supply to get a value of 1. The output of the Adder is connected to the BCD 7 segment display, i.e. the pins 9, 6, 12, 15 are connected to pins 7, 1, 2, 6 respectively. Therefore, any number between 1 and 6 is displayed in a totally random manner in the form of its decimal equivalent on the 7 segment display. This completes the random number generation and the Digital dice display parts of the block diagram. 3.3 Components Assembled The following components have been assembled on a Bread Board in order to create a random number display between 1 and 6. 3.3.1 Counter A counter is a device which stores the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, usually in connection with a clock signal. Every counter requires a square wave clock signal to make them count. A square wave clock signal (as shown in figure 3) is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs) voltage, such as the output from a 555  astable timer. Here it comes from the pulse generator. Examples of counting are digital clocks, watches, timers found in a range of appliances from microwave ovens to VCRs and counters are also found in everything from automobiles to test equipments. There are mainly two types of counters: Ripple Counters In a ripple counter, there are a chain of flip-flops with the output of each flip flop forming the input for the next. Every time the input of the flip flop changes from high to low (on the falling edge), the state of the flip flop output changes. Ripple counters mostly count on the falling-edge which is the high to low transition of the clock signal. They use this edge as linking counters becomes easier as the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This whole process occurs because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low the point at which a carry must occur to the next bit. The disadvantages of this counter are: There is a slight delay (known as a Ripple Delay) as the effect of the clock ripples through the chain of flip-flops. But in many circuits, this is not a problem as it is far too short to be seen on a display. In a logic system, the connection to the ripple counter outputs will cause false counts which may produce glitches in the logic system and thereby disrupt its operation. For example, a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will briefly show 0110 (6), 0100 (4) and 0000 (0) before 1000. Synchronous Counter A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure as compared to a ripple counter. The advantage of this counter over the ripple counter is that it ensures that all its outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, thereby avoiding the brief false counts which occur with ripple counters. Most synchronous counters count on the rising-edge (refer figure 5) which is the low to high transition of the clock signal. They usually have carry  out and carry  in pins for linking counters without introducing any ripple delays. These counters have a synchronous reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than immediately as in a ripple counter. Since reset must be performed on the maximum count required, it is a very important function. 3.3.1.1 Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493) This is the counter used in the circuit. Figure 3 shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter. It is connected with LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) to show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA QD. And Q indicates the output. A counter can be used to reduce the frequency of an input signal and thus behaves as a frequency division counter (as shown in figure 7), i.e. they can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of a counter halves the frequency, so here the LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED, i.e. QA is 1/2, QB flashes at 1/4, QC at 1/8 and QD at 1/16 of the clock frequency. It is usually labeled as Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is possible by resetting counters. Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to their reset input. The counter is in two sections: Clock A for QA and Clock B for QB, QC and QD. If the reset input is active-low a NOT or NAND gate will be required to produce a low output at the desired count. Active low is indicated by a line drawn above reset. For example:     (say reset-bar). The reset function requires an immediate reset on the next count. 3.3.1.2 Decade Counter (IC 7490): A decade counter (refer figure 8) is a binary counter that is designed to count to 10 or 1010 in binary, i.e. it counts the number of pulses arriving at its input. The number of pulses is counted up till 9 and it appears in binary form on four pins of the IC. When the tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and a single pulse appears at another output pin. This function is performed due to the fact that the NAND output goes low, and resets the counter to zero. D going low can be a CARRY OUT signal, indicating that there has been a count of ten. So for ten pulses in the input, there is one pulse output. Therefore, the 7490 Decade Counter divides the frequency of the input by ten. And, if this pulse is applied to the input of a second 7490 decade counter, then the second IC will count the pulses from the first IC i.e. for 100 pulses input, there will be one pulse output. 3.3.2 Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) The parallel adder precedes the binary counter, i.e. once the counter begins its count from 0 5, it then enters the adder where the binary 0001 is added to it. The central computational element in any circuit is the adder. The function of the parallel adder is to add two n bit numbers together. For this purpose, n full adders should be cascaded with each full adder representing a column in the long addition. The carry signals ripple through the adder from right to left. Figure 9 indicates the working of a logic full adder/ subtractor. The adder circuit has a mode control signal M which determines whether the circuit has to operate as an adder or a subtractor. Each XOR gate receives one input from M and the other input from B, i.e. Bi. The function of the XOR gate is that if both the inputs of the XOR gate is the same, then the output of the XOR gate will be zero and if both the inputs to the XOR gate are different, then the output of the XOR gate will be 1. When M = 0, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 0 = Bi. Thus, the addition function takes place, i.e. the circuit performs A plus B (A + B). When M = 1, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 1 = Bi. Since it is the complement of B, subtraction function takes place, i.e. A plus 1s complement of B which is the same as A minus B (A B). Every digit position consists of two operands and a carry. The operation of an adder is to add the two operands and the carry-in together. If the result is less than the base, this sum is outputted with a carry-out of 0. 0therwise the base is subtracted from the total of the two operands and the carry-in and this sum is outputted with a carry-out. 3.3.3 BCD 7 segment display decoder Here, the output of the Binary parallel adder forms the input for this BCD 7 segment decoder to display the random number from 1 6. The inputs A D for the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) display driver are connected from the outputs of the parallel adder. The display driver consists of a network of logic gates to make its outputs a g become high or low. This lights the required segments a g of a 7-segment display as shown in the figure. Usually, a resistor is required in series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 or 270 is a suitable value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. But for this project, only one 270 resistor is used which is connected between 3 (display test) and 8 (ground) pins of the integrated circuit. There are two types of 7-segment displays: Common Cathode (CC or SC): This display consists of all the cathodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become high to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated with high voltages. For example the IC 4511. Here, there is a connection between the common cathode to 0V. IC 4511 is designed to drive a common cathode display and thus would not work with the common anode display. Common Anode (CA or SA): This display consists of all the LED anodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become low to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated by connecting with low voltages. For example, IC 7447 (BCD 7 segment decoder) which is the IC used for this project. Here, there is a connection of a resistor in series between the common anode to +Vs. The 7447 chip is used to drive 7 segment display. The input to the 7447 is a binary number DCBA where D is 8s (1000), C is 4s (0100), B is 2s (0010) and A is 1s (0001). The IC 7447 display is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal) which has input values from DCBA = 0000 (0) to DCBA = 1001 (9) (i.e. 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001 in binary). Inputs from 10 to 15 (1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 in binary) will light odd display segments. The following functions can be performed on the IC 7447: This IC has an open collector outputs a g, which can sink up to 40mA. A lamp test can be performed on the IC to check if all the segments are in working condition. This is done by keeping the part of the IC low. At this point of time, all the display segments should light (showing number 8). There is another function which is the Blanking Input (). If the blank input is low, then the display will be blank when the count input is zero (0000). This can be used to blank leading zeros when there are several display digits driven by a chain of counters. The blank  output can be achieved by connecting the blank  input of the next display down the chain (i.e. the next most significant digit). Also, a function stands for Ripple Blanking Input. When is low and DCBA = 0000, the display is blank otherwise the number is displayed on the display. This is used to remove leading zeroes from a number. For example, displays 89 instead of 089. If more than one display has to be used, a connection of (Ripple Blanking Output) from most significant 7447 to the of the next 7447 has to be done. If a connection between of the least significant 7447 to 5V is done, the display will turn off when the number is 0. This circuit can also be controlled by a PLC (Programmable Logic Circuit), if the inputs to the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) come from the 4 output bits of the PLC output card. Chapter 4:  Summary This chapter lists the achievements and developments of the project The following has been achieved in this project: Successful design and simulation of random number generation circuit along with the dice display Block Diagram of the Digital Dice game, circuit diagram for the display of random numbers from 1 6 on the 7 segment display. Successful assembly of wires, binary ripple counter (IC 7493), binary parallel adder (IC 7483), BCD 7 Segment display decoder (IC 7447). The development of this project is as follows. The digital dice game is currently being assembled, and post assembly, it will be used as a game to be played between two players.. Remaining circuit diagrams with more detail about the remaining parts of the block diagram will be designed.